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Destination revisit intention has been viewed as an important research topic both in academia and the tourism industry. It is important to observe tourists’ revisit intentions from a time perspective because the intention often changes over time. To understand the formation of temporally changing destination revisit intention, this study explored the effects of tourists’ noveltyseeking and destination satisfaction on the revisit intentions measured on shortterm, midterm, and longterm bases. The results indicated that satisfaction was a direct antecedent of shortterm revisit intention, but not of midterm or of longterm revisit intention, and that novelty seeking was a significant antecedent of midterm revisit intention that was connected to longterm revisit intention. The roles of novelty seeking and destination satisfaction in establishing and reinforcing destination revisit intention as well as developing longterm commitment were discussed as well.
ARTICLE IN PRESS Tourism Management 28 (2007) 580–590 www.elsevier.com/locate/tourman Research article Temporal destination revisit intention: The effects of novelty seeking and satisfaction SooCheong (Shawn) Janga,Ã,1, Ruomei Fengb,1 a Department of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907-2059, USA b Strategic and Marketing Research, Fedex Services, Collierville, TN 38017, USA Received 27 April 2006; accepted 28 April 2006 Abstract Destination revisit intention has been viewed as an important research topic both in academia and the tourism industry It is important to observe tourists’ revisit intentions from a time perspective because the intention often changes over time To understand the formation of temporally changing destination revisit intention, this study explored the effects of tourists’ novelty-seeking and destination satisfaction on the revisit intentions measured on short-term, mid-term, and long-term bases The results indicated that satisfaction was a direct antecedent of short-term revisit intention, but not of mid-term or of long-term revisit intention, and that novelty seeking was a significant antecedent of mid-term revisit intention that was connected to long-term revisit intention The roles of novelty seeking and destination satisfaction in establishing and reinforcing destination revisit intention as well as developing long-term commitment were discussed as well r 2006 Elsevier Ltd All rights reserved Keywords: Temporal destination revisit intention; Novelty seeking; Satisfaction Introduction Repeat purchase has been accepted as one of the most important subjects in contemporary marketing In many studies, benefits of repeat purchase are often noted as (1) attracting previous customers is more cost-effective than gaining new ones; (2) 5% increase in customer retention could increase profit by 25–85%; and (3) customer retention tends to yield positive word-of-mouth referral (Reichheld & Sasser, 1990; Shoemaker & Lewis, 1999) In tourism, repeat visits have also been accepted as an important phenomenon at the level of the economy as a whole and for the individual attraction (Darnell & Johnson, 2001) Indeed, many travel destinations rely heavily on repeat visitors (Darnell & Johnson, 2001; ÃCorresponding author Tel.:+1 765 496 3610; fax:+1 765 494 0327 E-mail addresses: jang12@purdue.edu (S.C (Shawn) Jang), fengruomei@yahoo.com (R Feng) Both authors contributed equally to the article The sequence of the authorships is arbitrary 0261-5177/$ - see front matter r 2006 Elsevier Ltd All rights reserved doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2006.04.024 Gitelson & Crompton, 1984) To understand why travelers make repeat visits, many studies have focused on the antecedents of destination revisit intention in recent years The studies have identified major antecedents of revisit intention including satisfaction (Baker & Crompton, 2000; Kozak, 2001; Petrick, Morais, & Norman, 2001; Yuksel, 2001), quality related constructs (Baker & Crompton, 2000; Chen & Gursoy, 2001; Frochot & Hughes, 2000; Yuksel, 2001), perceived value (Petrick, Morais, & Norman, 2001), past vacation experience (Chen & Gursoy, 2001; Kozak, 2001; Petrick et al., 2001), safety (Chen & Gursoy, 2001), image (Milman & Pizam, 1995; Ross, 1993), attachment (Petrick, 2004), and cultural difference (Chen & Gursoy, 2001; Reisinger & Turner, 1998) As suggested in the theory of reasoned action (TRA) and the theory of planned behavior (TPB), behavioral intentions signify motivational components of a behavior and represent the degree of conscious effort that a person will exert in order to perform a behavior (Ajzen, 1991; Fishbein, 1967; Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975) In turn, behavioral intention depends upon cognitive evaluations ARTICLE IN PRESS S.C (Shawn) Jang, R Feng / Tourism Management 28 (2007) 580–590 of the behavior (attitude) and perceptions of social pressure (subjective norm) (Ajzen, 1991; Fishbein, 1967; Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975) Warshaw and Davis (1985, pp 214) defined behavioral intentions as ‘‘the degree to which a person has formulated conscious plans to perform or not perform some specified future behavior.’’ That is, intention to perform a behavior is the proximal cause of such a behavior (Shim, Eastlick, Lotz, & Warrington, 2001) Including past behavior in the TRA may increase the explained variance in behavior (Bagozzi, 1981; Fredricks & Dossett, 1983), but Ajzen (1987) maintained that past behavior offers little theoretical content in explaining what lies behind a behavior since it often shows superficial patterns, not the causes of human action Some empirical studies have examined the relationship between behavioral intention and actual behavior Using meta-analytic techniques, Sheppard, Hartwick, and Warshaw (1988) extensively reviewed research literature that included 87 cases for the predictability of intention and behavior, and reported a mean correlation of 0.53 between intention and behavior Van den Putte (1991) conducted a more extensive meta-analysis based on 113 research papers and provided a mean correlation of 0.62, which indicated that behavior could be reasonably predicted from intention Another meta-analysis by Quelette and Wood (1998) agreed that behavior is guided by intentions Moreover, Eagly and Chaiken (1993) suggested that TRA and TPB could be used to predict sets of behavior aggregated over time from intention for the corresponding time period For example, intention that is queried for six-month period can predict behavior for the same 6-month period On the other hand, based on Wind & Lerner’s (1979) claim, the relationships between behavior intentions and actual behavior may differ, meaning the relationship could be weak However, it seems to be generally agreed that understanding tourist behavioral intention is critical in predicting future behavior In the same vein, revisit intention can serve as a useful tool in predicting future revisit behavior Even though the extant research findings are well focused on the determinants of repeat visit intention, understanding tourists’ revisit intention and their behavior remains limited Particularly, previous research has rarely addressed temporal issues related to destination revisit (Oppermann, 2000) Oppermann (1999, p 58) suggested that time is significant in tourist retention and loyalty because ‘‘time firstly plays a role in identifying appropriate time intervals during which a purchase may or may not take place’’ Darnell and Johnson (2001, p 125) also noted the significance of temporal viewpoint to destination management, indicating, ‘‘the time profile of repeat visiting has important implications for visit flows.’’ Therefore, in order to better understand temporal destination revisit intention (TDRI), this study explored the effects of tourists’ novelty seeking and destination satisfaction on TDRI, which is measured with short-term, mid-term, and long-term revisit intentions 581 Literature review 2.1 Temporal destination revisit intention (TDRI) A pioneering work on TDRI dates back to exploratory research by Gyte and Phelps (1989) In their study, Gyte and Phelps noted a type of British traveler showing resurgent intention of revisiting two destination areas in Spain What they found was that most visitors have the intention of returning in the future Another study for international repeat visits by Baloglue and Erickson (1998) reported a similar pattern in Mediterranean tourism destinations The study showed that most international travelers to one destination are more likely to switch to another destination for their next trip, but many of them hope to revisit the same destinations in the future However, their explanation on revisit intentions relied on superficial patterns that appeared from the data analyses and on two implicit assumptions (Hughes, 1995; Schmidhauser, 1976; Woodside & MacDonald, 1994): (1) revisit intention lapses over time; and (2) the strength of revisit intention tends to be constant once it is created The first assumption is implied by the recency-frequencymonetary value (RFM) paradigm, which serves as one of the essential operational principles for many loyaltybuilding programs (Hughes, 1995) The RFM paradigm suggests that individuals who buy one’s product more recently, more frequently, and spend more money are more likely to repurchase or respond to an incentive to repurchase (Hughes, 1995) Particularly, the notion of recency indicates that recent customers tend to repurchase and that the strength of their repurchasing intention will decrease over time The second assumption is implied by some extant tourist typologies Woodside and MacDonald (1994) identified two distinct tourist segments: visitors returning to a destination due to familiarity and visitors not returning due to familiarity Schmidhauser (1976) also suggested that there are two different types of visitors based on their destination choices: continuous repeaters and continuous switchers Other tourist classifications based on tourist retention and loyalty shared the assumption of static revisit intention Gitelson and Crompton (1984) classified repeat visitors into three subgroups: infrequent, frequent, and very frequent, but they did not specify the frequency of visits for each group Oppermann (1999) discussed a conceptual typology as a function of multiple visits, based on a New Zealand resident data: somewhat loyal (infrequent), loyal (regular), and very loyal (annual and biannual); and further extended this typology to cover the entire population by introducing four other traveler types: non-purchasers, disillusioned, unstable, and disloyal Apparently, these two assumptions could not fully explain the existence of the type of tourist discovered by Gyte and Phelps (1989) Thus, although repeat visit is not the same as loyalty, it is meaningful to look at tourists’ revisit from loyalty perspective Yim and Kannan (1999) ARTICLE IN PRESS 582 S.C (Shawn) Jang, R Feng / Tourism Management 28 (2007) 580–590 suggested that the definition of loyalty should include both exclusive and reinforcing loyalties Exclusive loyalty was further termed as hardcore loyalty, for those consumers who have been won over by a particular alternative over time Reinforcing loyalties are potential switchers that tend to purchase more than one alternative, exhibit divided loyalties among a few alternatives, and have an increased tendency to repurchase the alternative after their initial purchase Yim and Kannan’s study (1999) emphasized that the reinforcing loyalty was associated with variety seeking, which is similarly based on the optimum levels of stimulation (Zuckerman, 1971, 1994) Enlightened by the findings of Gyte and Phelps (1989) and the reinforcing loyalty of Yim and Kannan (1999), Feng and Jang (2004) argued a trichotomous TDRI tourist segmentation with a 5-year time frame: continuous repeater (travelers with consistently high revisit intentions over time), deferred repeater (travelers with low revisit intentions in the short-term but high revisit intentions in the longterm), and continuous switcher (travelers with consistently low revisit intentions over time) Among the three segments, deferred repeaters tend to reinforce visit intentions Thus, they are also potential switchers who tend to visit more than one destination, showing divided loyalties and displaying an increased tendency to revisit the destination after their initial visit Therefore, focusing on the deferred repeaters, this study is based on the idea that tourists’ visit intentions vary depending on time and that the intention could be split from a temporal perspective into short-term, mid-term, and long-term revisit intentions 2.2 Novelty seeking and TDRI Studies on switching behavior for general products were often based on the variety seeking theory (McAlister, 1982) However, tourism research by Feng and Jang (2004) used the novelty seeking theory instead of variety seeking theory in their TDRI segmentation study, not only because these two theories share the same idea that consumers seek optimal levels of stimulation in their choice of behavior as proposed by Hebb and Thompson (1954), but also because the novelty seeking theory is an important theoretical foundation in explaining destination choice behavior (Bello & Etzel, 1985; Zuckerman, 1971) Novelty seeking is a central component of travel motivation and acts as the opposite of familiarity It is often defined as the degree of contrast between present perception and past experience (Pearson, 1970) In the behavioral science literature, novelty seeking is also referred to as a curiosity drive, sensation seeking, and an exploratory drive The novelty seeking theory became important in tourism decision making because seeking novelty is innate in travelers (Cohen, 1979), and seeking various types of novelty motivates many pleasure travelers or vacationers to travel (Lee & Crompton, 1992) Crompton (1979) referred to novel as new experience but not necessarily new knowledge Faison (1977) defined novel travel as a trip characterized by new and unfamiliar experiences that differ from prior life experience Lee and Crompton (1992) further proposed the novel sources of pleasure travel as thrill, adventure and surprise, and boredom-alleviation According to Bello and Etzel (1985), the novelty seeking theory is based on optimum levels of stimulation that can be described by three propositions: (1) an organism prefers a particular level of stimulation; (2) when the stimulation in the environment does not reach this optimal level, an organism is motivated to seek novelty, complexity, adventure, or other conditions; and (3) when stimulation exceeds this optimal level, the organism will find ways to reduce it Berlyne (1960) extended these propositions by suggesting that (1) the arousal potential of the stimuli and the arousal state of an organism are distinct; and (2) between seeking and avoiding arousing stimuli is arousal tonus (the individually desired optimal level of arousal), or the average level of arousal wanted by an organism in its particular circumstances It is thus derived that the desire for new and unfamiliar experiences is frequently compromised by the need to reduce the uncertainty of exposure to novelty (Crompton, 1979); and a novelty-familiarity continuum can thus be defined to cover the entire range of preference from the highest to the lowest optimal level Feng and Jang (2004) claimed that while continuous repeaters may be comparable to lower novelty-seeking travelers and continuous switchers may be the higher novelty-seeking travelers, deferred repeaters represent travelers with at a mid-range level of stimulation It is widely accepted that novelty seeking plays a role in tourist decision-making (Petrick, 2002) Regarding the role of novelty in travel experience seeking, four of Hirschman (1984) propositions are relevant in the tourist setting (Lee & Crompton, 1992) First, some may desire a high level of novelty on a vacation, while others may prefer a lower level of novelty Second, the attitudes of tourists towards a destination may be influenced by their predispositions towards levels of novelty seeking Third, different destinations may satisfy similar desires for novelty Fourth, it may be possible to determine the types of destination that will satisfy an individual by understanding the relative level of novelty they desire 2.3 Satisfaction and TDRI Satisfaction is another important term that has received much attention in general consumer behavior research as well as tourism research because satisfaction brings positive behavioral outcomes and the understanding of satisfaction provides managerial guidance in the industry (Danaher & Haddrell, 1996; Kozak, 2001) Oliver (1997) defined satisfaction as customer judgment about product or service fulfillment Similarly, Engel, Blackwell, and Miniard (1990) proposed a definition that satisfaction is the outcome of the subjective evaluation about whether or not the chosen alternative meets or exceeds the expectation ARTICLE IN PRESS S.C (Shawn) Jang, R Feng / Tourism Management 28 (2007) 580–590 Various frameworks and theories have been developed to explain satisfaction (e.g., the expectation-disconfirmation paradigm and the equity theory) As seen in Engel, et al (1990) definition, the most frequently cited one in accounting for satisfaction is expectation-disconfirmation paradigm (EDP) that suggests a comparison between expectation and performance (Oliver, 1980; Wirtz, Mattila, & Tan, 2000; Yi, 1990) According to Oliver (1980), EDP suggests confirmation, positive disconfirmation, and negative disconfirmation Customers’ expectations are confirmed if service or product perceptions exactly meet expectations Positive disconfirmation occurs if performance exceeds expectations, whereas negative disconfirmation occurs when expectations exceed performance Thus, confirmation and positive disconfirmation result in satisfaction, while negative disconfirmation leads to dissatisfaction In the tourism and hospitality field, EDP has been also used to measure satisfaction in empirical studies (Bigne, Andreu, & Gnoth, 2005; Petrick & Backman, 2002; Skogland & Siguaw, 2004) Another theory on customer satisfaction is based on the equity theory (Oliver & Swan, 1989) Satisfaction occurs when customers receive more value than what they spent in terms of price, time, and effort (Heskett, Jones, Loveman, Sasser, & Schlesinger (1994); Kumar, 2002; Su, 2004) According to Grewal, Monroe, and Krishnan (1998, p 48), perceived value, especially perceived transactional value, is ‘‘the perception of psychological satisfaction obtained from taking advantage of the financial terms of the price deal.’’ Value is often accepted as a distinct variable from satisfaction (Cronin, Brady, & Hult, 2000; Yang & Peterson, 2004), but the equity theory suggests that value could be an appropriate measure to gauge satisfaction (Heskett, et al., 1994; Kumar, 2002; Oliver & Swan, 1989; Su, 2004) Based on these definitions, the relationship between satisfaction and repurchase intention has been explored in various product and service markets (e.g Anderson & Srinivasan, 2003; Olsen, 2002; Taylor & Baker, 1994) By proposing the existence of manifest satisfaction and latent satisfaction, Bloemer and Kasper (1995) argued that the relationship between consumer satisfaction and repurchase intention is not monotonic because of the disparity of customers’ motivation and capability to evaluate the purchased product/service brand relative to the reference point Manifest satisfaction occurs when an explicit comparison is made between expectation and performance and when the customers can be conscious of the outcome of their own evaluation and satisfaction When there is no explicit comparison made because of a lack of motivation and/or capability of the customers to evaluate their own choice, customers cannot be fully aware of their own satisfaction, which is called latent satisfaction An empirical test by Bloemer and Kasper (1995) indicated that the positive influence of manifest satisfaction on repurchase intention is greater than that of latent satisfaction, so the general idea that satisfaction has a positive relationship with repurchase intention is still valid Similarly, the positive relationship between satisfaction and revisit intention has been found in tourism destination choice settings (Baker & Crompton, 2000; Kozak, 2001; Petrick, et al., 2001; Yuksel, 2001) 2.4 The proposed TDRI formation model The uniqueness of this study is in addressing the temporal aspect of destination revisit intention Although time rarely appears in decision-making models (Bergadaa, 1990), its importance has been recognized in many academic fields such as philosophy (Bergson, 1959), sociology (Merleau-Ponty, 1962), history (Braudel, 1969), and physics (Bachelard, 1932) Researchers in these fields have suggested that time is one causal factor of natural and human phenomena and that the past and future of the phenomena are unconditionally linked This allowed the researchers to posit that short-term, mid-term, and longterm destination revisit intentions are inter-related Thus, four sets of hypotheses were proposed in this study Fig presents the following hypotheses The first set of hypotheses was on the relationships between novelty seeking and TDRI: H1a The level of novelty seeking influences short-term destination revisit intention H1b The level of novelty seeking influences mid-term destination revisit intention Destination Satisfaction Novelty Seeking H1c H2a H1a H2b H1b Short-term Revisit Intention H3a 583 Mid-term Revisit Intention H3b H2c Long-term Revisit Intention Fig A hypothetical model for temporal destination revisit intention (TDRI) ARTICLE IN PRESS 584 S.C (Shawn) Jang, R Feng / Tourism Management 28 (2007) 580–590 H1c The level of novelty seeking influences long-term destination revisit intention The second set of hypotheses was about the relationships between destination satisfaction and TDRI: H2a Destination satisfaction influences short-term destination revisit intention H2b Destination satisfaction influences mid-term destination revisit intention H2c Destination satisfaction influences long-term destination revisit intention The third set of hypotheses considered the relationships of destination revisit intentions across different time periods: H3a Short-term destination revisit intention influences mid-term destination revisit intention H3b Mid-term destination revisit intention influences long-term destination revisit intention Methodology The study used data from the Pleasure Travel Markets Survey for France that was collected by the Coopers and Lybrand Consulting Group under the joint sponsorship of the Canadian Tourism Commission and the International Trade Administration—Tourism Industries in the US Using random sampling, a total of 1221 personal interviews were conducted in French households All respondents were 18 years or older and had taken overseas vacations of four nights or more by plane outside of Europe and the Mediterranean region More detailed data, including information about tourist novelty-seeking, was collected only from those who traveled to Canada because the Canadian Tourism Commission made a greater financial contribution to the data collection Thus, to examine tourists’ revisit intentions, which was the primary variable of this study, and to achieve the objective of this study, a sub-sample of 163 respondents who visited Canada was drawn from the dataset An important issue in the measurement of TDRI was to decide upon the time frame In the destination consumption setting, since there are no accepted definitions of shortterm, mid-term, and long-term, short-term revisit intention was defined in this research as the intention to revisit within the next 12 months; mid-term as within the next three years, and long-term as within the next five years Thus, short-term revisit intention was operationalized by two variables; revisit interest within the next 12 months (SI) and revisit likelihood within the next 12 months (SL) For midterm revisit intention, revisit interest within the next years (MI) and revisit likelihood within the next years (ML) were used, while revisit interest within the next years (LI) and revisit likelihood within next years (LL) were used for long-term revisit intention A four-point Likert scale (1 ¼ not at all interested and not at all likely, ¼ very interested and very likely) was used to gauge the level of interest and likelihood Interest has been used to capture information about behavioral intention (BI), while likelihood has been used as behavioral expectation (BE) in previous studies (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1974) However, due to the confounding nature of the two variables, as suggested in Ajzen and Fishbein (1974), both BI and BE have been used to measure behavioral intentions in many studies (e.g., Anderson, 1983; Jaccard & King, 1977; Triandis, 1979) Thus, this study used both interest and likelihood to measure revisit intentions Because researchers argued a need for a multi-attribute scale for satisfaction (Knutson, 1988; Lewis & Pizam, 1981; Su, 2004; Wirtz et al., 2000), two variables in the data set were used to measure satisfaction in this study The first variable was the overall satisfaction with the destination reported by travelers (SAS) using a four-point Likert scale Based upon the equity theory of customer satisfaction, the second measurement variable as a proxy of satisfaction was the perceived value for money from visiting the destination (SAV) measured by a 10-point Likert scale with a rationale that individuals tend to have high levels of satisfaction when they feel their trips are valuable (Oliver & Swan, 1989) The two variables were transformed with square functions to obtain normal distributions The transformed variables, SQSAS and SQSAV, were used in testing the proposed model Nine novelty-seeking items were extracted from the data set to develop the measurement construct of novelty seeking The variables are listed in Table To test and estimate the hypothesized model, a two-step approach with an initial measurement model and a subsequent structural model for Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was used (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988) The LISREL 8.54 structural equation analysis package was used to conduct the analysis In estimating the measurement model and structural models, the maximum likelihood procedure was used, where a model w2 test is the most common model goodness-of-fit test (Joreskog & Sorbom, 1993) In addition, considering the literature about the SEM (Hair, Anderson, Tatham, & Black, 1998; Hu & Bentler, 1999; Kline, 2005), this study used, besides the model w2, more model fit indexes to determine the tenability of the suggested model: goodness-of-fit index (GFI) and root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) as absolute fit indexes; normed-fit index (NFI) and non-normed-fit index (NNFI) as incremental fit indexes; and normed w2 as a parsimonious fit index Results Before estimating the model, the reliability of the measurement items was verified using the Cronbach’s a to assess the internal consistency of the constructs in the proposed model The alpha values range from 0.64 to 0.94 (Table 1), exceeding the minimum hurdle of 0.6 for an exploratory study (Hair et al., 1998) Construct reliabilities were also checked, yielding satisfactory scores of greater than 0.5 (Hair et al., 1998) The results indicated that the ARTICLE IN PRESS S.C (Shawn) Jang, R Feng / Tourism Management 28 (2007) 580–590 585 Table Results of confirmatory factor analysis for measurement model Standardized loading t-statistic 0.61 0.65 0.52 0.52 0.69 11.09 10.13 8.02 9.83 11.96 NV1 NV2 NV3 NV4 NV5 0.77 11.54 NV6 0.53 8.78 NV7 0.47 0.48 4.79 6.39 NV8 NV9 Destination satisfaction Overall satisfaction (squared) Value of Money (squared) 0.73 0.64 4.94 4.93 Short-term revisit intention Revisit interest within next 12 month Revisit likelihood within next 12 month 0.99 0.86 11.52 12.88 Mid-term revisit intention Revisit interest within next three years Revisit likelihood within next three years 0.99 0.89 18.00 16.01 Long-term revisit intention Revisit interest within next five years Revisit likelihood within next five years 0.97 0.89 9.43 12.89 Variables Novelty Seeking Experiencing a different culture Local crafts and handiwork Local cuisine and new food Interesting and friendly local people Opportunity to see or experience people from different ethnic backgrounds Opportunity to see or experience unique aboriginal or native group Opportunity to increase one’s knowledge about places, people and thing Variety of things to see and Visiting a place I can talk about when I get home Cronbach a Construct reliability 0.88 0.53 0.64 Label 0.64 SQSAS SQSAV 0.92 0.92 SI SL 0.89 0.94 MI ML 0.76 0.93 LI LL Table Goodness-of-fit indexes for measurement and structural models Index Model w2 p-value Normed w2 RMSEA GFI NFI NNFI Cutoff value N/A 40.05 1.0–5.0 o0.05: good fit 0.05–0.08: mediocre fit 40.90 40.90 40.90 measurement items were reliable in gauging each construct The measurement model was estimated with a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) The results of the measurements for novelty seeking, destination satisfaction, and the three temporal destination revisit intentions showed a good model fit (w2 ¼ 123.65, p-value ¼ 0.055, normed w2 ¼ 1.23, RMSEA ¼ 0.040, GFI ¼ 0.92, NFI ¼ 0.95, NNFI ¼ 0.99) (Table 2) All indicator loadings for the constructs in the model were significant at the alpha level of 0.05, showing convergent validity (Table 1) Examining whether or not the correlations among the constructs were significantly different from tested the discriminant validity among the constructs The confidence intervals of the correlations, Observed statistics Measurement model Structural model 123.65 0.055 1.23 119.10 0.094 1.19 0.040 0.035 0.92 0.95 0.99 0.92 0.96 0.99 calculated as correlation 1.96  standard error of estimate, did not contain 1, which indicated discriminant validity A structural model with five constructs was estimated using Maximum Likelihood (ML) estimation The fit indices of the structural model indicated a good fit to the data (w2 ¼ 119.10 p-value ¼ 0.094, normed w2 ¼ 1.19, RMSEA ¼ 0.035, GFI ¼ 0.92, NFI ¼ 0.96, NNFI ¼ 0.99) The results of the hypothesis testing are reported in Table Four out of nine hypotheses (paths) were found to be significant, including the effect of satisfaction on short-term revisit intention (b ¼ 0.26, t-value ¼ 3.23), novelty seeking on mid-term revisit intention (b ¼ 0.12, ARTICLE IN PRESS S.C (Shawn) Jang, R Feng / Tourism Management 28 (2007) 580–590 586 Table Results of the structural equation modeling for structural model Paths Short-term revisit intention Short-term revisit intention Mid-term revisit intention Mid-term revisit intention Mid-term revisit intention Long-term revisit intention Long-term revisit intention Long-term revisit intention ’ ’ ’ ’ ’ ’ ’ ’ Satisfaction Novelty seeking Short-term revisit intention Satisfaction Novelty seeking Mid-term revisit intention Satisfaction Novelty seeking Standardized estimate t-statistic Hypothesis 0.26 0.02 0.75 0.06 0.12 0.86 0.01 0.05 3.23à 0.43 12.29à 1.35 2.30à 19.38à 0.14 0.99 Supported Not supported Supported Not supported Supported Supported Not supported Not supported à Indicates significance at a level of 0.05 δ1 NV1 0.61 δ2 NV2 δ3 NV3 δ4 NV4 0.65 0.52 ζ1 0.52 δ5 NV5 δ6 NV6 Novelty Seeking 0.68 0.73 Destination Satisfaction 0.77 ε1 SQSAV ε2 0.64 0.12 0.54 0.26 ζ2 δ7 NV7 δ8 NV8 ζ3 0.47 Short-term Revisit Intention 0.50 δ9 SQSAS NV9 0.99 SI ε3 Mid-term Revisit Intention 0.75 0.87 0.97 0.99 Long-term Revisit Intention 0.86 SL MI ML ε4 ε5 ε6 0.97 LI ε7 ζ4 0.87 LL ε8 Fig Results of structural model for temporal destination revisit intention (TDRI) t-value ¼ 2.30), short-term revisit intention on mid-term revisit intention (b ¼ 0.75, t-value ¼ 12.29), and mid-term revisit intention on long-term revisit intention (b ¼ 0.86, tvalue ¼ 19.38) The final TDRI structural model is presented in Fig The statistical results provided three major findings: (1) destination satisfaction directly influences short-term revisit intention only and satisfaction is connected to midterm and long-term revisit intention in an indirect way through short-term revisit intention; (2) novelty seeking does not affect short-term revisit intention, but it is a significant direct antecedent of mid-term revisit intention and an indirect antecedent of long-term revisit intention; and (3) a significant relationship exists between short-term and mid-term revisit intention, as well as between mid-term and long-term revisit intention Discussion and conclusions Many businesses seek repeat customers because such customers are believed to produce more sales revenue and help reduce marketing costs (Hennig-Thurau & Hansen, ARTICLE IN PRESS S.C (Shawn) Jang, R Feng / Tourism Management 28 (2007) 580–590 2000; Reichheld & Sasser, 1990) Tourism marketers also believe that repeat visitors are important in increasing revenue in destinations and in saving marketing dollars Because of a flood of tourism products and services, destination marketers have greater difficulties in drawing travelers to their destinations in increasingly competitive market environments On the contrary, tourists are given many options that can satisfy their travel needs, which directly influences destination choice It is certain that continuous repeaters make up the most attractive segment from the destination perspective, because they would reduce long-term marketing costs However, if they focus only on continuous repeaters, destination managers and marketers may misunderstand the movement of their market and allocate their resources inefficiently To avoid inefficiency, destinations should further understand their entire market structure, which consists of other segments, including continuous repeaters and deferred repeaters It is important for marketers to note the life-long values of both continuous repeaters and deferred repeaters As pointed out by Oppermann (2000), frequent patronage is not always a true indicator of destination loyalty because of spurious loyalty (not very positive attitude but high repeat purchase) This indicates why it is more important for destinations to examine tourists’ revisit intention than actual revisit In addition, it is also necessary to understand how the revisit intention changes over time and identify appropriate time intervals during which a purchase may or may not occur Thus, examining destination revisit intentions from a time viewpoint as suggested in this study may be of a great significance for both practical and theoretical reasons Time is an essential component of natural and human phenomena The ultimate goal in addressing TDRI should be to investigate and comprehend the lifetime value (LTV) of repeat travelers Although it may be difficult to fully understand the LTVs of travelers within the 5-year time span adopted in this study, this exploratory research may provide a useful stepping stone to tourism researchers in determining the importance of the temporal perspective in destination revisit intention Looking back to the tourist typologies on repeat visitation by Gitelson and Crompton (1984) and Oppermann (1999), this study theoretically explained the formation of infrequent, frequent, and very frequent repeaters The temporal perspective of destination revisit intention should make it easier to understand tourist revisit behavior The model of TDRI formation in this study examined two potential antecedents of destination revisit intention: satisfaction and novelty seeking Previous research has shown that satisfaction is an important predictor of intention to revisit (Petrick & Backman, 2002) In this study, satisfaction was a significant direct factor influencing short-term revisit intention, which was consistent with previous literature that has emphasized the role of satisfaction in customer and repeat travel behavior However, satisfaction had no direct impact on mid-term 587 and long-term revisit intention Thus, the direct effect of satisfaction may not be significant in developing long-term business retention unless satisfaction can be continuously given Meanwhile, novelty was identified as a significant, direct, and positive antecedent of mid-term revisit intention Because the term expresses a tendency to seek new and adventurous experiences, novelty seems to be a factor in switching behavior This study revealed another function of novelty in reinforcing and recovering revisit intention This new function of novelty also offers a theoretical clue as to why the RFM paradigm and the recency notion are not fully appropriate for destination relationship marketing According to the final model, while novelty seeking directly influences mid-term revisit intention, there is no direct relationship between novelty seeking and long-term revisit intention A possible explanation may come from a theoretical perspective Neutralizing the effect of novelty seeking on long-term revisit intention, other factors that are not included in the study model may exist, one of which can be perceived behavioral control Perceived behavioral control is defined as one’s perception of how easy or difficult it is to perform the behavior (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993) In accordance with the theory of planned behavior by Ajzen (1991), people intend to engage in behaviors to the extent that they believe that they have control over them In the case of destination revisit intention, tourists’ perception of the ability to control actual revisit behaviors may decrease over time due to the uncertainty of the future As a result, the decrease of long-term revisit intention because of low perceived behavioral control may counteract the increased revisit intention from novelty seeking Following the proposition that long-term commitment depends on accumulated satisfaction, it is essential to understand how to satisfy repeat travelers Some researchers have concluded that repeat travelers differ from firsttime travelers in many ways, for instance, in using information sources (Chen & Gursoy, 2000), in destination image (Fakeye & Crompton, 1991), in visiting behavior (Oppermann, 1997), and in expenditure (Tang & Turco, 2001) Particularly, Yuksel (2001) argued that repeat and first-time visitors develop satisfaction based on different components of destination attributes Another interesting idea comes from the study by Gyte and Phelps (1989) showing that travelers with reinforcing revisit intention tend to visit different resorts when they came back to the same destination areas This tendency is understandable because deferred repeaters are novelty-seekers, while continuous repeaters are inherent novelty avoiders Overall, the findings of this study suggest that management can influence repeat visits from the short, medium, and longterm perspectives Travel destinations can motivate travelers to revisit within a year or so by maximizing traveler satisfaction Thus, destination management should take special care of visitor satisfaction because satisfied visitors will come back to experience this satisfaction again within a short period In addition, management needs to plan ARTICLE IN PRESS 588 S.C (Shawn) Jang, R Feng / Tourism Management 28 (2007) 580–590 rejuvenation to appeal to novelty seekers who have visited New attractions can be developed or new natural resources can be used to attract past visitors to revisit within medium terms However, practically speaking, destinations may improve visitor revisit intention within a shorter term if they can provide different products or services season by season If that is the case, destinations can make it possible for the same visitors to revisit sooner than suggested by this study Furthermore, Kozak (2001) pointed out that satisfaction with a destination would facilitate not only revisit to the destination but also a visit to a neighboring destination These extant findings may lead to future research on secondary destination decisions How repeat travelers make choices after they decide to revisit a destination? How does novelty seeking function at this stage? The answers to these questions will help a destination develop appropriate strategies to attract different segments as well as develop marketing partnerships with neighborhood destinations It is not deniable that this study has limitations Using a country (Canada) as a destination, this study adopted a five-year term to test the revisit intention cycle However, Oppermann (1998) proposed a conceptual model for destination choice suggesting that the likelihood of an individual visiting a particular destination would decline with an increase in the distance traveled Thus, the 5-year length of the reinforcing cycle may not be appropriate for destinations with smaller geographical scope Another limitation is related to the sample size of this study Kline (2005) suggested that an ideal goal for the ratio of the number of observations to the number of free parameters in the SEM is 20 and a realistic minimum target is 10 This study falls short of the suggested ideal goal, even though it approximately meets the minimum target In addition, this study may have more limitations due to its exploratory nature While this study introduced a new research direction for understanding revisit intentions, there remains a great scope for further research exploring the influence of time on tourists’ repeat visits For future research, further efforts should be directed toward developing more comprehensive temporal models that can explain revisit intentions using a schema, a system of relationships that combine additional possible determinants as suggested by Kozak, Huan, and Beaman (2002) That could better explain the effect of time on revisit intentions, further verifying tourist loyalty Acknowledgements The data, from which the sample of this study was drawn, were collected by the Coopers & Lybrand Consulting Group on behalf of Canadian Tourism Commission and the former United States Travel and Tourism Administration The authors would like to acknowledge their contributions Neither 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University of Nebraska van den Putte, B (1991) 20 years of the theory of reasoned action of Fishbein and Ajzen: A meta-analysis Unpublished manuscript, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands Warshaw, P R., & Davis, F D (1985) Disentangling behavioral intention and behavioral expectation Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 21, 213–228 Wind, Y., & Lerner, D (1979) On the measurement of purchase... model and analysis Journal of Business Research, 44(2), 75–92 Yuksel, A (2001) Managing customer satisfaction and retention: A case of tourist destinations, Turkey Journal of Vacation Marketing, 7(2), 153–168 Zuckerman, M (1971) Dimensions of sensation seeking Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 36(1), 45–52 Zuckerman, M (1994) Behavioral expressions and biosocial bases of sensation seeking. .. & Turco, D M (2001) Spending behaviors of event tourists Journal of Convention and Exhibition Management, 3(2), 33–40 Taylor, S A., & Baker, T L (1994) An assessment of the relationship between service quality and customer satisfaction in the formation of consumers’ purchase intention Journal of Retailing, 70(2), 163–178 Triandis, H C (1979) Values, attitudes, and interpersonal behavior In MM Page (Ed.),... Decision Making Processes and Preference Changes of Tourists—Intertemporal and Intercountry Perspectives (pp 30–59) Thaur, Austria: Kulturverlag Yang, Z., & Peterson, R T (2004) Customer perceived value, satisfaction, and loyalty: The role of switching costs Psychology & Marketing, 21(10), 799–822 Yi, Y (1990) A critical review of consumer satisfaction In S Valerie Zeithaml (Ed.), Review of Marketing (pp 68–123)... purchase data: Surveys versus purchase diaries Journal of Marketing Research, 16, 39–47 Wirtz, J., Mattila, A., & Tan, R (2000) The moderating role of targetarousal on the impact of affect on satisfaction: An examination in the context of service experiences Journal of Retailing, 76(3), 347–365 Woodside, A G., & MacDonald, R (1994) General systems framework of customer choice processes for tourism services... Lewis, R C (1999) Customer loyalty: The future of hospitality marketing International Journal of Hospitality Management, 18, 345–370 Skogland, I., & Siguaw, J A (2004) Are your satisfied customers loyal? Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 45(3), 221–234 Su, A Y (2004) Customer satisfaction measurement practice in Taiwan hotels International Journal of Hospitality Management, 23, 397–408... Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 36(1), 45–52 Zuckerman, M (1994) Behavioral expressions and biosocial bases of sensation seeking New York: Cambridge University Press Further reading Thompson, J (1996) The fourth dimension Beverage World, 115(June), 34–36