Applied Energy 160 (2015) 489–501 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Applied Energy journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apenergy Three-dimensional full-loop simulation of a dual fluidized-bed biomass gasifier Hui Liu a, Robert J Cattolica a,⇑, Reinhard Seiser a, Chang-hsien Liao b a b Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA West Biofuels, LLC, Woodland Biomass Research Center, 14958 County Road 100B, Woodland, CA 95776, USA h i g h l i g h t s  CFD simulation of biomass gasification in a dual fluidized-bed  The CFD model predicts the gas composition and the reactor temperature distribution  The CFD model has been validated by experimental data  The effects of the particle size distribution and drag models have been investigated a r t i c l e i n f o Article history: Received 12 May 2015 Received in revised form 10 September 2015 Accepted 15 September 2015 Keywords: Biomass gasification Fluidization CFD modeling a b s t r a c t A three-dimensional CFD model was developed to simulate the full-loop of a dual fluidized-bed biomass gasification system consisting of a gasifier, a combustor, a cyclone separator, and a loop-seal This fullloop simulation includes the chemical kinetic modeling of biomass drying and pyrolysis, heterogeneous char reactions, and homogeneous gas-phase reactions In the model, the gas phase is described using Large Eddy Simulation (LES) and the particle phase is described with the Multiphase Particle-In-Cell (MP-PIC) method The simulation was performed using the GPU-accelerated computing and the simulation results were compared with the gas composition and temperature measurements from a pilot-scale biomass gasification power plant (1 MWth, tons biomass/day) The independence of the accuracy of the model on mesh resolution and computational particle number was determined The impacts of the particle size distributions (PSD) and drag models on the reactive flows were also investigated Ó 2015 Published by Elsevier Ltd Introduction Fossil fuels are the primary energy source in industry These natural resources, however, are limited and will be depleted in the future Biomass as a renewable energy source can be an alternative to fossil fuels [1–5] Biomass resources are abundant and can be derived from many sectors such as agricultural residues, food waste, and industrial by-products [6] Bioenergy can be released from biomass through thermal conversion technologies such as pyrolysis, gasification, and combustion [7,8] Among these technologies, biomass gasification is an attractive option, because it can generate heat and can also be applied to produce syngas for electricity generation and chemical synthesis A variety of gasification technologies such as fixed-bed, ⇑ Corresponding author Tel.: +1 858 5342984 E-mail address: rjcat@ucsd.edu (R.J Cattolica) http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.09.065 0306-2619/Ó 2015 Published by Elsevier Ltd fluidized-bed, and entrained-flow gasifiers have been developed and applied in various industries [9–11] Compared to other types of gasification processes, fluidized-bed gasification is attractive due to its efficient mass and energy transfer [12–15] However, because of the complexity of gas-particle interactions and gasification reaction kinetics, designing fluidized-bed gasifiers is arduous In recent years, owing to the developments of computer technologies, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is now capable of simulating biomass gasification to assist with process design, scale-up, and optimization Currently, there are mainly three CFD methods for the simulations of fluidized-bed biomass gasifiers: the Eulerian–Eulerian (EE) approach, the Eulerian–Lagrangian (EL) approach, and the hybrid Eulerian–Lagrangian approach In the Eulerian–Eulerian approach, the particle phase is treated as a continuum The Eulerian–Eulerian approach requires less computing power because it treats particles as a continuous phase and does not track each of them Due to its computational effectiveness, this method can be used to simulate large-scale fluidized-bed 490 H Liu et al / Applied Energy 160 (2015) 489–501 Nomenclature Ap C p;i CV Dt Dp E f F g kd dmp Mw Nu Re u V Yi particle surface area (m2) concentration of particle species i (kmol/m3) specific heat (kJ/(kg K)) turbulent mass diffusivity (m2/s) aerodynamic drag function Enthalpy (kJ/kg) particle size distribution function interphase force between the gas and particle phases gravity (m/s2) the thermal conductivity of the particle phase (W/ (m K)) mass source term (kg/(m3 s)) molecular weight (kg/mole) Nusselt number Reynolds number velocity (m/s) computational cell volume (m3) mass fraction of gas species i reactors The EE method, however, has limitations Because of the assumption of the continuous solid phase, the particle diameters in one solid phase must remain the same and cannot change during the simulation [16] This can be a serious problem for the simulations of biomass gasifiers in which particle diameters change significantly due to particle surface reactions The EL approach can be a better option, because each particle is tracked and has its own properties such as diameter, density, and temperature The simulations using the EL method, however, are time-consuming The calculations for particle collisions in dense phase require an enormous amount of computational resources Therefore, the EL approach may not be suitable for the simulations of industrial fluidized-bed reactors which generally contain millions or billions of particles [17,18] To simulate dense particle flows more efficiently, a hybrid Eulerian–Lagrangian approach, the Multiphase Particle-In-Cell method (MP-PIC), was developed by Andrews and O’Rourke [19] In this method real particles are grouped into computational particles and then each computational particle is tracked In the MP-PIC method one computational particle can represent hundreds or thousands of real particles The particles defined in one computational particle share the same size, density, velocity, and temperature Compared to the general EL approach, the MP-PIC method is more computational-efficient Furthermore, unlike the EL approach in which particle collisions are calculated by the particle collision models, the effect of particle collision in the MP-PIC method is described by an isotropic solid stress, a function of solid volume fraction [19,20] This technique avoids intense computation for particle collisions and saves a significant amount of computing time There are also limitations in the MP-PIC method This method is not suitable for the simulation of particle bridging, de-fluidized beds, and non-aerated hopper flows in which the direct collisions and inter-particle contacts are critical, because in the MP-PIC method the interactions of particles are calculated with a solid stress model, rather than the collision models For such cases, the general EL method may be a better option Numerous CFD models using the EE, EL, and hybrid EL approaches were previously developed to simulate fluidized-bed gasifiers, but most of them were only focused on one keycomponent of the fluidized bed system such as a gasifier [20–28] Greek symbols volume fraction unit tensor dij kmol the molecular conductivity of the gas phase (W/(m K)) keddy the turbulent conductivity of the gas phase (W/(m K)) q density (kg/m3) s shear stress tensor (kg/(m s2)) sD particle collision damping time (s) llam laminar viscosity (m2/s) lt turbulent viscosity (m2/s) a Subscripts c char cp close packing g gas phase i; j coordinate index p particle phase Other components of the fluidized-bed system such as the cyclone separator and the loop-seal were neglected The interactions between the key components were simplified as inlets or outlets with the fixed conditions This simplification can cause serious errors, especially for the systems that consist of multiple reactors and cyclone separators [29] The best solution to the problem is to simulate the full-loop of fluidized-bed system, instead of a part of the system Recognizing the limitations of the single-component approach, researchers have recently focused on simulating the full-loop of fluidized-bed system to improve the model accuracy Nguyen et al [30] developed a 2D Eulerian–Eulerian model to study the solid circulation in the full-loop of a dual fluidized-bed system Wang et al [31] built a 3D model to simulate the hydrodynamics in a circulating fluidized-bed using the EE approach Other researchers have conducted similar studies by simulating the full-loop of the fluidized-bed system [32–34] It should be noted that all of the previous full-loop models are ‘‘cold models” in which no chemical reactions were considered Consequently, these models can only be applied to study the hydrodynamics and cannot be utilized to predict the gas production in the gasifier Currently, ‘‘hot” or ‘‘reactive” models that simulate the full-loop of a fluidized-bed biomass gasifier have not been demonstrated The purpose of this work is to build a model that can simulate both the hydrodynamics and chemical reactions for a dual fluidized-bed system To provide more comprehensive insight to the design of fluidized-bed gasifiers, a three-dimensional CFD model for a pilot-scale (6 tons/day, MWth) power plant is developed In this model, the full-loop of a dual fluidized-bed biomass gasification system including a gasifier, a combustor, a cyclone separator, and a loop-seal is simulated using the MP-PIC method The kinetics of biomass drying and pyrolysis, heterogeneous char combustion and gasification, and homogeneous gas-phase reactions are all included in this model The momentum, mass, and energy transport equations are coupled with the reaction kinetics to predict the gas production, particle circulation, and reactor temperature within the dual fluidized-bed gasification system The predicted gas composition and reactor temperature profiles are compared with experimental data from the pilot power plant for model validation Case studies of mesh resolution and particle 491 H Liu et al / Applied Energy 160 (2015) 489–501 number are performed to examine the reliability and accuracy of the model The impact of the particle size distribution (PSD) and drag models on the reactive flows in the dual fluidized-bed system are also investigated 2.2 Governing equations for the particle phase In the MP-PIC method, the particle acceleration equation is applied to calculate the particle velocity as shown below: À Á rp rsp dup up À up À þgþ ¼ Dp ug À up À dt qp qp ap 2sD Governing equations In this CFD model, the gas phase is simulated by the Large Eddy Simulation (LES) while the particle phase is described by the particle acceleration equation The interphase momentum transfer is modeled by the drag model The mass and energy transport equations are coupled with the reaction kinetics to simulate biomass gasification in the dual fluidized-bed system 2.1 Governing equations for the gas phase ð13Þ where up is the local mass-averaged particle velocity The solid stress tensor, sp , is modeled as follows: sp ¼ 10Ps abp  À Áà max ðacp À ap Þ; e À ap ð14Þ where Ps ; b, and e are the model constants The solid volume fraction, ap , is calculated by the following equation: ZZZ mp The continuity and momentum equations for the gas phase are shown as follows: ap ¼   @ðag qg Þ þ r Á ag qg ug ¼ dmp @t The interphase force between the gas and particle phase is calculated as shown below: ð1Þ ZZZ   @ðag qg ug Þ þ r Á ag qg ug ug ¼ Àrp þ F þ ag qg g þ r Á s @t   @u @u @u s ¼ l g;i þ g;j À ldij k @xj @xi @xk ð2Þ ð3Þ l ¼ llam þ lt lt ð4Þ sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi  2ffi @ug;i @ug;j ¼ C qg D þ @xj @xi D¼ ð5Þ p ffiffiffiffi V ð6Þ where C ¼ 0:01 is a model constant The species transport equation is applied to solve for the gas composition, shown as follows:     @ðag qg Y i Þ þ r Á ag qg ug Y i ¼ r Á ag qg Dt rY i þ dmreact @t Dt ¼ ð7Þ l ð8Þ qg Sc where dmreact: is the mass consumption or generation from the chemical reactions, and Sc, the turbulent Schmidt number, is a set as 0.9 The following energy transport equation is used to calculate the temperature [20]:   À Á @ðag qg EÞ @p þ r Á ag qg ug E ¼ ag þ ag ug Á rp À r ag q þ U @t @t þ Sinter þ Q þ qdiff ð9Þ where U is the viscous dissipation, q is the fluid heat flux, Sinter is the heat exchange between the gas and particle phases, qdiff is the enthalpy diffusion term, and Q is the heat source due to chemical reactions q ¼ Àðkmol þ keddy ÞrT g keddy ¼ C p lt Prt ð10Þ ð11Þ where Pr t is the turbulent Prandtl number as a constant of 0.9 qdiff ¼ Ns X r Á ðag qg Ei Dt rY i Þ i¼1 f ð12Þ F¼ qp ( ð15Þ dmp dup dT p " À Á f mp Dp ug À up À # rp qp ) dmp dmp dup dT p þ up dt ð16Þ To investigate the impact of drag models in the simulation, the Wen–Yu, Wen Yu–Ergun, and Turton–Levenspiel drag models are employed The Wen–Yu model is a drag model that is mainly based on a model for a single-particle in an unbounded fluid and is coupled with a fluid volume fraction multiplier accounting for the particle packing effect [35] In this paper the Wen–Yu model is used for the base case and is defined as follows: Dp ¼ qgjug Àup j Cd qp dp 24 À2:65 ag ; Re < 0:5 > > < Re   0:687 C d ¼ 24 aÀ2:65 þ 0:15Re ; 0:5 Re 1000 Re g > > : 0:44aÀ2:65 Re > 1000 g ð17Þ ð18Þ In the Wen–Yu model, the aerodynamic drag function, Dp , is calculated by Eq (17); the drag coefficient for a particle, C d , is described by the Stokes model [36] at low Reynolds numbers and is set as 0.44 at high Reynolds numbers; it is estimated by the Schiller–Naumann model [37] in the transition region The fluid volume fraction multiplier is set as aÀ2:65 g As indicated by Snider and Banerjee [38], the Wen–Yu model in the MP-PIC method is capable of providing the accurate predictions for dense gas-sold flows Additionally, the Wen–Yu model has also been used by other researchers for the simulation of the gasparticle systems [20,29,39] Note that the Wen–Yu model applied in the MP-PIC method is not the same as that used in the Eulerian–Eulerian approach The Wen–Yu model in the EE method only uses the Schiller–Naumann model and doesn’t include other parts of Eq (18) The Wen Yu–Ergun drag model proposed by Gidaspow [40] is a drag model blending the Wen–Yu and Ergun functions Therefore, this drag model consists of three parts: the Wen–Yu model, Ergun model, and the blending function The Wen Yu–Ergun drag model in the MP-PIC method is defined as: DWen Yu ap < 0:75acp > > > : DErgun ap > 0:85acp ð19Þ 492 H Liu et al / Applied Energy 160 (2015) 489–501 DErgun     qg ug À up  180ap ¼ þ2 ag Re qp dp ð20Þ The Turton–Levenspiel model is also a model using a singleparticle drag function and a fluid volume fraction multiplier The aerodynamic drag function is calculated by the following equations [41]: Dp ¼ 18ug f w ð21Þ p dp q   f w ¼ 1:0 þ 0:173Re0:657 þ 0:413Re  5aÀ2:65 p 24 þ 16:3RepÀ1:09 ð22Þ The mass conservation for the particle phase is established on the basis of individual computational particle and is calculated by the following equations: dmp;i ag Mwp;i dC p;i m ¼ dt qp ap p dt N dmp X dmp;i ¼ dt dt i¼1 ZZZ dmp ¼ À f dT p kd Nu Ap ðT g À T p Þ ¼ CV mp dp dt ð25Þ ð26Þ The conservative energy transferred from the particle phase to the gas phase, Sinter , is shown as follows [42]: & ! À Á2 dT p ¼ f mp Dp up À uf À C V dt !' Á2 dmp 1À À dmp dup dT p Ep þ up À uf dt 2.3.2 Biomass pyrolysis During pyrolysis, biomass, C19:82 H24:52 O11:86 , is decomposed into char and volatile gases, as shown below: C19:82 H24:52 O11:86 ! 5:96CO þ 2:95CO2 þ 8:26H2 þ 1:5CH4 þ 0:5C2 H4 þ 8:41Char ðDH ¼ 310:01 kJÞ exponential factor was chosen as 1:49  105 to adjust the proper reaction rate for the biomass feedstock used in the experiment The composition of the volatiles was determined by the proximate and ultimate analysis of the biomass used in the pilot-scale power plant, as proposed by other researchers [45,46] r2 ¼ 1:49  105 exp ðR3Þ C þ H2 O $ CO þ H2 ðDH ¼ 131:29 kJÞ ðR4Þ C þ CO2 $ 2CO ðDH ¼ 172:46 kJÞ ðR5Þ C þ 2H2 $ CH4 ðDH ¼ À74:87 kJÞ ðR6Þ The reaction rates are calculated by the following equations [47,48]: r3 ¼ 4:34  107 ac T p exp r4f ¼ 6:36mc T p exp ð27Þ 2.3.1 Biomass drying Biomass drying process is described as follows: ðR1Þ The rate of biomass drying is calculated by the following equation [43]:   À10585 ½BiomassŠ r ¼ 5:13  1010 exp Tp   À13590 ½O2 Š Tp   À22645 ½H2 OŠ Tp r4r ¼ 5:218  10À4 mc T 2p exp During the gasification process, after biomass is fed to the gasifier, moisture is released from biomass and then char and volatile gases such as CO, CO2, H2, CH4, and C2H4 are generated from biomass pyrolysis Some of char begins to react with gases to generate CO, H2, and CH4 The remaining char is transported to the combustor and is burned with O2 As the bed material particles are circulated within the dual fluidized-bed system, the heat of char combustion is carried back to the gasifier to sustain the endothermic gasification process In this work, biomass drying and pyrolysis, heterogeneous char reactions, and homogeneous gas-phase reactions are considered The biomass feedstock used in the experiment is almond prunings In this model the biomass sample is defined as C19:82 H24:52 O11:86 for the dry-ash-free biomass Additionally, for simplicity the minor elements such as N, S, and Cl are not considered in this work ð28Þ ð29Þ C þ O2 ! CO2 ðDH ¼ À393:51 kJÞ 2.3 Reaction kinetics Moisture in BiomassðsÞ ! H2 OðgÞ   À1340 ½BiomassŠ Tp 2.3.3 Heterogeneous char reactions The heterogeneous char reactions are shown as follows: ZZZ Sinter ðR2Þ The reaction rate of (R2) is calculated by the single-step global reaction mechanism [44], as shown in Eq (29), and the pre- ð23Þ ð24Þ dmp dmp dup dT p dt where ½BiomassŠ is the molar concentration of biomass per volume r5f ¼ 6:36mc T p exp   À6319 À 17:29 ½H2 Š½COŠ Tp   À22645 ½CO2 Š Tp ð30Þ ð31Þ ð32Þ ð33Þ r5r ¼ 5:218  10À4 mc T 2p exp   À2363 À 20:92 ½COŠ2 Tp ð34Þ r6f ¼ 6:838  10À3 mc T p exp   À8078 À 7:087 ½H2 Š Tp ð35Þ r6r ¼ 0:755mc T 0:5 p exp   À13578 À 0:372 ½CH4 Š0:5 Tp ð36Þ 2.3.4 Homogeneous gas-phase reactions The following gas-phase reactions are included in this model: CO þ 0:5O2 ! CO2 ðDH ¼ À283 kJÞ ðR7Þ H2 þ 0:5O2 ! H2 O ðDH ¼ À241:82 kJÞ ðR8Þ CH4 þ 2O2 ! CO2 þ 2H2 O ðDH ¼ À802:28 kJÞ ðR9Þ C2 H4 þ 3O2 ! 2CO2 þ 2H2 O ðDH ¼ À1323:13 kJÞ ðR10Þ C3 H8 þ 5O2 ! 3CO2 þ 4H2 O ðDH ¼ À2043:20 kJÞ ðR11Þ CO þ H2 O ! CO2 þ H2 ðDH ¼ À41:17 kJÞ ðR12Þ The reaction rates are calculated as follows [49–54]: r7 ¼ 1:3  1011 exp   À15155 ½COŠ½O2 Š0:5 ½H2 OŠ0:5 Tg ð37Þ 493 H Liu et al / Applied Energy 160 (2015) 489–501   À13110 ½H2 Š½O2 Š r ¼ 2:2  109 exp Tg   À24417 ½CH4 Š0:7 ½O2 Š0:8 Tg ð39Þ r 10 ¼ 1:0  1015 exp   À20808 ½C2 H4 Š½O2 Š Tg ð40Þ r 11 ¼ 8:6  1011 exp   À15000 ½C3 H8 Š0:1 ½O2 Š1:65 Tg ð41Þ r ¼ 5:01  1011 exp r 12 ¼ 2:75ap exp Waste Gases ð38Þ Producer Gas   À10079 ½COŠ½H2 OŠ Tg ð42Þ Propane and AddiƟonal Air Supply Model setup The data used in this study is from the experiment conducted on a dual fluidized-bed gasification plant with a full-load of MWth, or tons (biomass)/day The plant was built by West Biofuels, LLC and is located at the Woodland Biomass Research Center, Woodland, California Fig 1a shows the dual fluidized-bed system which consists of a gasifier, a combustor, a cyclone separator, and a loop-seal As shown in Fig 1b, biomass is fed at the side of the gasifier while the steam is presented at the bottom The 1st, 2nd, and 3rd air supplies are injected into the combustor at three locations Propane and an additional air supply are presented in the middle of the combustor to provide additional heat to control the temperature of the dual fluidized-bed system In the experiment, eight temperature sensors were used to monitor the temperatures at the selected heights of 0.66, 1.12, 3.05, and 5.03 m in the gasifier, and 0.55, 1.83, 2.89, and 6.40 m in the combustor As shown in Fig 1c, they are labeled as T1, T2, T3, T4, T7, T8, T9, and T10, respectively The experimental data used in this work is from an early commissioning test performed with a partial load of the pilot plant and is only used for the rd Air Supply Steam Supply Biomass nd Air Supply Steam Supply st Air Supply Fig 1b Model setup Cyclone Combustor Loop-Seal 1067 mm Fig 1a Dual fluidized-bed system 7400 mm 6450 mm 7900 mm Gasifier 356 mm Fig 1c Locations of temperature sensors 494 H Liu et al / Applied Energy 160 (2015) 489–501 purpose of CFD study of biomass gasification Future studies will include additional operating conditions as they become available In this work a comprehensive three-dimensional model is built with the CFD software, Barracuda Virtual ReactorÒ A case using a 243,423-cell grid and 419,506 computational particles is set as a base case The model is set to run for 100 s of simulation time to reach pseudo steady-state The size of time step is in the range of 10À3 to 10À5 s and is automatically controlled by the Courant– Friedrichs–Lewy (CFL) scheme to achieve a converged solution A workstation with an IntelÒ i7 CPU @3.50 GHz and a GeForce GTX TITAN graphics card is used to perform the computations Each simulation requires about 96–120 h to be completed The simulation results are compared with the experimental data to validate the model The settings of CFD model and the properties of biomass used in the experiment are shown in Tables and 2, respectively As shown in Table 1, the mean diameter of bed material particles is 488 lm, and a normal distribution was used for the bed material particles with the standard deviation of 0.146 dp The inlet and outlet settings such as mass flow rate, temperature, and pressure are all based on the experimental setup The thermal wall conditions in Barracuda Virtual Reactor (VR)Ò are very limited and only two thermal wall conditions such as the prescribed Table Model settings Bed material properties Bed material density (kg/m3) Mean diameter of bed material particles ðlmÞ; dp Size distribution of bed material particles Standard deviation of the normal distribution Solid volume fraction at close pack Initial bed height (m) Outlet conditions Pressure at the gasifier and cyclone outlets (atm, abs.) Mass flow inlet boundary conditions Biomass feed rate (kg/h) Biomass inlet temperature (K) Mass flow rate of the steam to the gasifier (kg/h) Temperature of the steam to the gasifier (K) Mass flow rate of the preheated 1st air to the combustor (kg/h) Temperature of the preheated 1st air to the combustor (K) Mass flow rate of the preheated 2nd air to the combustor (kg/h) Temperature of the preheated 2nd air to the combustor (K) Mass flow rate of the preheated 3rd air to the combustor (kg/h) Temperature of the preheated 3rd air to the combustor (K) Mass flow rate of propane to the combustor (kg/h) Temperature of propane to the combustor (K) Pressure of propane to the combustor (Pa) Mass flow rate of the burner air to the combustor (kg/h) Temperature of the burner air to the combustor (K) Mass flow rate of the steam to the loop-seal (kg/h) Temperature of the steam to the loop-seal (K) Wall boundary conditions Gas phase Particle phase Thermal boundary condition for the wall of the gasifier Thermal boundary condition for the wall of the combustor 3560 488 Normal distribution 0.146 dp 0.56 2.50 1.0 72.8 293 85.6 640 36 602 Table Biomass properties Proximate analysis of biomass sample Ash mass fraction, wet basis Fixed C, mass fraction, wet basis Volatile, mass fraction, wet basis Moisture, mass fraction, wet basis 0.0209 0.2020 0.7253 0.0518 Ultimate analysis of biomass sample C H O N S Cl HHV (MJ/kg) Biomass density (kg/m3) Biomass mean diameter (m) 0.513 0.0529 0.409 0.0066 0.0001 0.0004 20.1 550 0.0057 temperature wall and adiabatic wall are available In the experiment there was heat loss from the gasifier and the amount of the heat loss needed to be calculated due to the large external surface area of the gasifier In the current model the setting of prescribed wall temperature was applied to the gasifier to simulate heat loss Meanwhile, as shown in Table 1, the adiabatic wall condition was applied to the combustor, instead of the prescribed temperature wall The reason is that the effect of the prescribed temperature in Barracuda VR is strong, especially for the small volume of the reactor such as the combustor The temperature distribution in the combustor can be significantly influenced by the prescribed temperature and even become uniform throughout the combustor, which is unrealistic Additionally, compared to the gasifier, the amount of heat loss in the combustor is relatively low due to its small external surface area, and therefore the adiabatic wall setting becomes a more reasonable option than the prescribed temperature setting As shown in Table 2, the mean diameter of biomass particles is 5.7 mm In the current work, due to the lack of the data of biomass particle size distribution, the diameter of biomass particles is set as a constant for simplicity Considering the fact that the major volume of the solids is from the bed material (more than 95%), the assumption of the monodisperse biomass particles may not affect the model accuracy dramatically However, the size distribution for biomass particles can be included in future studies to improve the model accuracy if the data on the size distribution are available 260 632 Results and discussion 362 648 19.5 293 1:56  105 561 293 27.1 640 No-slip Partial slip Prescribed wall temperature, 973 K Adiabatic wall 4.1 Simulation results In Fig the particle circulation in the dual fluidized-bed system is presented in terms of particle volume fraction In the gasifier the particles are fluidized by the steam and are delivered to the combustor Then the particles are fluidized by the air and are entrained from the combustor into the cyclone separator The particles disengage from the gas in the cyclone separator and fall down into the loop-seal The particles are fluidized by the steam in the loopseal and are finally transported back to the gasifier Fig shows the view of solid volume fraction in the center of the gasifier and combustor As seen in the figure, the volatile gases are released from biomass pyrolysis after biomass is fed at the side of the gasifier Meanwhile, the steam is presented at the bottom of the gasifier and forms bubbles to fluidize the bed material In the combustor, the air is injected into the combustor to fluidize the bed material and react with the char entrained from the gasifier The typical ‘‘core-annulus” solid structure, dense solid flows in H Liu et al / Applied Energy 160 (2015) 489–501 495 Fig Particle circulation in the dual fluidized-bed system from the bottom of the gasifier to fluidize the bed material It is also observed that a small amount of steam escapes from the gasifier to the combustor due to the pressure difference; however, no other gases are seen leaking to the combustor It appears that in the dual fluidized-bed system the steam is not only a fluidization medium and a reactant but also a sealing gas that can prevent other gases escaping from the gasifier to the combustor Due to the presence of the sealing gas or the steam, the valuable gases such as CO and H2 can be kept in the gasifier to be further delivered to the downstream unit 4.2 Study of mesh resolution Three case studies are conducted to examine how the simulation results are affected by the mesh resolution The simulation results based on three grids with 216,972, 243,423, and 348,768 cells are compared to each other As shown in Fig 5, the predicted gas compositions from the three cases are almost identical Figs and show that the predicted reactor temperatures for the three cases are also close and the temperature differences are less than 10 degrees in average The comparison results show that the model predictions are not affected dramatically by the mesh resolutions, indicating that the grid resolution for the base case is sufficient for the model to present the accurate results Accordingly, the 243,423-cell grid is chosen for the remaining studies 4.3 Study of computational particle number Fig Section view of solid volume fractions the near-wall region and dilute solid flows in the center, is observed in the lower region of the combustor In Fig the gas concentration distributions in the gasifier and combustor are presented As seen in the figure, H2 and CO are generated from biomass pyrolysis at the side of the gasifier and then the gases begin to react with char and other gases while penetrating through the bed material In the meantime, the steam rises up In the MP-PIC method all of particles are grouped into computational particles and each computational particle is tracked The calculations of momentum, mass and energy transfer for the particle phase are on the basis of computational particles, rather than real particles Applying a large number of computational particles can help to improve the model accuracy, but it also requires a large amount of computing power and the simulation can become very slow; however, if the computational particle number is too small, the accuracy of the model can be compromised Therefore, it is necessary to implement a study to examine the effect of the computational particle number 496 H Liu et al / Applied Energy 160 (2015) 489–501 Fig CO (top), H2O (middle), and H2 (bottom) distributions 497 0.5 0.45 0.4 0.35 0.3 0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 SimulaƟon Results_Grid SimulaƟon Results_Grid SimulaƟon Results_Grid Mole Fraction Mole Fraction H Liu et al / Applied Energy 160 (2015) 489–501 C2H4 CH4 CO CO2 H2 0.5 0.45 0.4 0.35 0.3 0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 ComputaƟonal ParƟcle Number_309,013 ComputaƟonal ParƟcle Number_419,506 ComputaƟonal ParƟcle Number_569,613 C2H4 CH4 CO CO2 H2 Fig Gas composition comparison for mesh resolution study Fig Gas composition comparison for particle number study 900 850 800 750 700 650 600 550 500 ComputaƟonal ParƟcle Number_309,013 ComputaƟonal ParƟcle Number_419,506 ComputaƟonal ParƟcle Number_569,613 900 Temperature (ºC) Temperature (ºC) Gasifier Temperature_Grid Gasifier Temperature_Grid Gasifier Temperature_Grid T1 T2 T3 T4 800 700 600 500 T1 Fig Gasifier temperature comparison for mesh resolution study T2 T3 T4 Fig Gasifier temperature comparison for particle number study Combustor Temperature_Grid Combustor Temperature_Grid 1100 ComputaƟonal ParƟcle Number_309,013 ComputaƟonal ParƟcle Number_419,506 ComputaƟonalParƟcle Number_569,613 Combustor Temperature_Grid 900 900 800 700 600 500 T7 T8 T9 T10 Temperature (ºC) Temperature (ºC) 1000 800 700 600 500 Fig Combustor temperature comparison for mesh resolution study T7 T8 T9 T10 Fig 10 Combustor temperature comparison for particle number study In addition to the base case with 419,506 computational particles, two more cases with 309,013 and 569,613 computational particles are built to investigate the impact of computational particle number on the predictions of gas composition and reactor temperature As shown in Figs 8–10, the gas compositions from three cases are almost identical, and the predicted gasifier and combustor temperatures from three cases are similar The comparison results indicate that the model predictions are not influenced significantly by the computational particle numbers Therefore, the computational particle number for the base case is sufficient in regard to the model accuracy Consequently, the computational particle number of 419,506 is selected for the remaining studies 4.4 Comparison of simulation results and experimental data In Fig 11, the predicted concentrations of H2, CO, CO2, CH4, and C2H4 are compared with experimental data As seen in the figure, good agreement is achieved between the predicted gas composition and experimental data In addition to the comparison of gas composition, the predicted temperatures in the bottom, lower, middle, and upper regions of the gasifier and combustor are compared with the temperature measurements to further examine the model accuracy As displayed in Figs 12 and 13, the predicted gasifier and combustor temperatures agree well with the temperature data 4.5 Study of particle size distribution (PSD) In fluidized-bed systems, the hydrodynamic regime of the gasparticle system can be greatly influenced by the particle size distribution (PSD) In the current dual fluidized-bed system, there are two types of particles: biomass and bed material particles As mentioned previously, biomass particles in this model were set as H Liu et al / Applied Energy 160 (2015) 489–501 0.006 0.5 0.45 0.4 0.35 0.3 0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 SimulaƟon Results 0.005 Experimental Data Frequency Mole Fraction 498 Base_case Polydisperse_1 Polydisperse_2 0.004 0.003 0.002 0.001 0 C2H4 CH4 CO CO2 200 H2 Fig 11 Producer gas composition comparison (dry basis) 800 Solid volume fracƟon_1.81m_base case Solid volume fracƟon_1.81m_Polydisperse_1 0.3 Experimental Data Solid volume fracƟon_1.81m_polydisperse_2 Solid volume fraction Gasifier Temperature (°C) 600 Fig 14 Particle size distribution (PSD) SimulaƟon Results 950 400 Particle diameter (micron) 900 850 800 750 700 650 600 0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 -0.15 550 -0.1 -0.05 0.05 0.1 0.15 Radial distance (m) 500 T1 T2 T3 T4 Fig 15a Time-averaged solid volume fraction profile at the height of 1.81 m Fig 12 Gasifier temperature comparison ParƟcle velocity_1.81m_base case 1000 950 900 850 800 750 700 650 600 550 500 3.5 Experimental Data 3.0 Particle velocity (m/s) Combustor Temperature (°C) ParƟcle velocity_1.81m_polydisperse_1 SimulaƟon Results ParƟcle velocity_1.81m_polydisperse_2 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 -0.5-0.15 -0.1 -0.05 0.05 0.1 0.15 Radial distance (m) Fig 15b Time-averaged particle velocity profile at the height of 1.81 m T7 T8 T9 T10 Fig 13 Combustor temperature comparison monodisperse particles for simplicity Considering the fact that most of the solids in the dual fluidized-bed system are bed material particles, only the impact of PSD of the bed material was considered and the PSD for biomass particles was not included in this study For the base case, the normal distribution with the standard deviation of 0.146 dp was applied to the bed material particles as the initial condition In this section, two more cases using different PSDs are compared with the base case to examine the impact of PSD The normal distribution function is defined as follows: ðdÀdm Þ2 À f init ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi e 2r2 r 2p ð43Þ where dm is the mean diameter, and r is the standard deviation In this section, r is set as 0.2 and 0.3 of dm for the cases of polydisperse_1 and polydisperse_2, respectively As demonstrated in Fig 14, when r becomes larger, the range of particle diameter also gets wider Fig 15a displays the time-averaged radial profile of solid volume fraction at the height of 1.81 m for the combustor As seen in the figure, the solid volume fraction predicted from the case with r ¼ 0:3dm (polydisperse_2) is higher than those of the case of r ¼ 0:2dm (polydisperse_1) and the base case Additionally, as shown in Fig 15b, the velocity for the case of polydisperse_2 is mostly smaller than those of other two The higher solid volume fraction in the case of polydisperse_2 may be caused by the larger value of r in the PSD As mentioned 499 H Liu et al / Applied Energy 160 (2015) 489–501 previously, if a larger r is applied to the PSD, the percentages of small and big particles will become larger Based on the current hydrodynamic settings, small or mean diameter particles can be moved up quickly; however, big particles may not be lifted up easily and may remain in the lower part of the combustor and accumulate in the near-wall region Meanwhile, due to the heavy masses of big particles, the particle velocity in the lower region becomes slower than those of other cases The fact that the flow patterns of three cases are dramatically different indicates that the impact of PSD is significant in the lower region of the combustor Figs 16a and 16b show the profiles of solid volume fraction and particle velocity at the height of 6.62 m in the combustor As seen in the figures, the dramatic differences of flow patterns observed in the lower region are not seen in the upper region On the contrary, the profiles of three cases are very close It may be because the large particles assigned by the PSD tend to stay in the lower region and have difficulty in reaching the higher level to influence the flow pattern Consequently, the impact of the PSD becomes insignificant in the upper region 4.6 Study of drag model In the Eulerian–Eulerian approach, the Wen–Yu model is preferable for dilute gas–solid flows while the Wen Yu–Ergun or Gidaspow model is more universal and used for both dilute and dense gas–solid flows In the current work the Wen–Yu drag model was chosen for the base case The reason is that the Wen–Yu model in the MP-PIC method, as mentioned previously, is not the same as that used in the EE approach and can also be used for dense gas–solid flows [20,29,38,39] However, to further examine the impact of different drag models in the MP-PIC method, the flow patterns from three cases using the different drag models such as the Wen–Yu, WenYu–Ergun, and Turton–Levenspiel models are compared in this section Fig 17a displays the solid volume fractions from three drag models at the height of 1.81 m All of three models are capable of predicting the core-annulus flow structure at the height of 1.81 m in the combustor The predicted profiles from three drag models are different from each other The solid volume fraction predicted by the Wen Yu–Ergun model is higher than other two models The prediction from the Wen–Yu is smaller than the Wen Yu–Ergun model; however, the difference between the Wen–Yu and Wen Yu–Ergun models is not significant The Turton–Levenspiel model presents the most dilute solid concentration Meanwhile, as shown in Fig 17b, the particle velocities predicted by the three drag models are mostly close to each other Fig 18a shows the solid volume fractions at the height of 3.58 m As seen in the figure, the predicted solid volume fractions from the Wen–Yu and Wen Yu–Ergun models almost overlap and are both higher than the Turton–Levenspiel model In Fig 18b, the particle velocities predicted by the Wen–Yu and Wen Yu– Ergun are also similar and are both lower than the Turton–Levenspiel model In Fig 19a, the predicted solid volume fractions at the height of 6.62 m predicted from three drag models are compared to each other The solid concentration in the upper region of the combustor becomes dilute and the predictions from all of three models mostly overlap each other Additionally, as displayed in Fig 19b, the predicted particle velocities from the Wen–Yu and Wen Yu–Ergun are almost identical and are both slightly lower than that of the Turton–Levenspiel model According to the comparison in the lower, middle, upper regions, it is observed that the Turton–Levenspiel model tends to Solid volume fracƟon_6.62m_base case Solid volume fracƟon_6.62m_polydisperse_1 Wen-Yu_1.81 m Wen Yu-Ergun_1.81m Turton-Levenspiel_1.81m 0.25 Solid volume fracƟon_6.62m_polydisperse_2 0.014 Solid volume Fraction Solid volume fraction 0.016 0.012 0.01 0.008 0.006 0.004 0.002 -0.2 -0.15 -0.1 -0.05 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0.2 -0.15 Radial distance (m) -0.1 -0.05 0.05 0.1 0.15 Radial distance (m) Fig 16a Time-averaged solid volume fraction profile at the height of 6.62 m Fig 17a Time-averaged solid volume fraction profile at the height of 1.81 m ParƟcle velocity_6.62m_base case Wen-Yu_1.81m ParƟcle velocity_6.62m_polydisperse_1 Turton-Levenspiel_1.81 m 3.5 7.0 Particle Velocity (m/s) Particle velocity (m/s) Wen Yu-Ergun_1.81m ParƟcle velocity_6.62m_polydisperse_2 8.0 6.0 5.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 0.0 -0.2 -0.15 -0.1 -0.05 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 Radial distance (m) Fig 16b Time-averaged particle velocity profile at the height of 6.62 m 2.5 1.5 0.5 -0.15 -0.5 -0.1 -0.05 0.05 0.1 0.15 Radial distance (m) Fig 17b Time-averaged particle velocity profile at the height of 1.81 m 500 H Liu et al / Applied Energy 160 (2015) 489–501 Wen-Yu_3.58 m Solid Volume Fraction 0.04 Wen Yu-Ergun_3.58m Turton-Levenspiel_3.58 m 0.03 0.02 0.01 -0.2 -0.1 Radial Distance (m) 0.1 0.2 Fig 18a Time-averaged solid volume fraction profile at the height of 3.58 m Wen-Yu_3.58 m Wen Yu-Ergun_3.58m Turton-Levenspiel_3.58 m Particle Velocity (m/s) 8.0 6.0 4.0 2.0 0.0 -0.2 Conclusions -0.1 Radial Distance (m) 0.1 0.2 Fig 18b Time-averaged particle velocity profile at the height of 6.62 m Solid volume fraction Wen-Yu_6.62 m 0.016 Wen Yu-Ergun_6.62m 0.014 Turton-Levenspiel_6.62 m 0.012 0.01 0.008 0.006 0.004 0.002 -0.2 -0.1 Radial distance (m) 0.1 0.2 Fig 19a Time-averaged solid volume fraction profile at the height of 6.62 m Wen-Yu_6.62 m Wen Yu-Ergun_6.62m 10.0 Particle velocity (m/s) present more dilute solid concentration than the others; both of the Wen–Yu and Wen Yu–Ergun models predict slightly denser solid volume fraction and the difference between the Wen–Yu and Wen Yu–Ergun models is minor In addition, the results from the current CFD model indicate that the gas compositions are not significantly affected by the different drag models with the gas compositions varying in less than 1% The reason is that the flow patterns of the three drag models are very close to each other, and consequently, the gas compositions are not affected dramatically Furthermore, the gas composition is determined primarily by the factors such as the kinetics of heterogeneous and homogeneous reaction, reactant and product concentrations, particle size, reactor residence time, and flow pattern Therefore, the minor changes in flow patterns with the drag models not affect the final prediction of gas composition significantly It is also worth noting that the impact of drag model on the prediction of gas composition and reaction kinetics is a complicated topic and it is very hard to explain in detail how the gas production can be affected by the drag model without sufficient experimental data Due to the complexity of this issue, the current study is only focused on the hydrodynamic impact of the drag model and the detailed study about the effect of drag model on gas production in the dual fluidized-bed system is not included in this work Turton-Levenspiel_6.62 m 8.0 6.0 4.0 2.0 0.0 -0.2 -0.1 Radial distance (m) 0.1 0.2 Fig 19b Time-averaged particle velocity profile at the height of 6.62 m In this paper the MP-PIC method was applied to simulate biomass gasification in a dual fluidized-bed system The predicted gas composition and reactor temperature profiles were compared with the experimental data to validate the model and good agreement was achieved The studies of mesh resolution and computational particle number were implemented to examine the model accuracy The base case with the 243,423-cell grid and 419,506 computational particles was chosen for the remaining studies producing acceptable accuracy while minimizing computing cost The effect of particle size distribution (PSD) was investigated In the lower region of the combustor, the solid volume fraction predicted from the case with r ¼ 0:3dm is higher than those of the case of r ¼ 0:2dm and the base case, which indicates that the impact of PSD is significant in the lower region; however, the study also shows that in the upper region the impact of PSD becomes insignificant, and the solid volume fractions for the three cases are similar This is principally because at the current hydrodynamic conditions most of the large particles in the PSD cannot reach the upper region of the combustor to change the flow pattern Note that due to the lack of experimental data, the impact of biomass PSD is not considered in this work for simplicity; however, it can be included in our future studies if the sufficient experimental data are available Three cases using the Wen–Yu, Wen Yu–Ergun, and Turton– Levenspiel drag models were established to examine the impact of the drag models The profiles of solid volume fraction and particle velocity from three cases were compared It was found that the solid volume fractions predicted by the Wen–Yu and WenYu– Ergun models were slightly denser and the predicted particle velocities both tended to be smaller than the Turton–Levenspiel model In the meantime, the difference between the Wen–Yu and Wen Yu–Ergun models is small, indicating that the roles of these two drag models in the MP-PIC method are similar It should be noted in the current model all of reactions are simulated by the global reaction scheme Due to the limitation of the global reaction scheme, the validity of the reaction kinetics in the current model might not be well-kept for other types of biomass feedstock or the systems that are dramatically different from the H Liu et al / Applied Energy 160 (2015) 489–501 current one In future studies, the detailed kinetics will be evaluated in the context of changing biomass feedstock Acknowledgements The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support from the California Energy Commission Grant (PIR-11-008) through West Biofuels 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