TRAINING MODULE for the ASSESSMENT OF PLASTIC WASTE Submitted to United Nations Environmental Programme Division of Technology, Industry and Economics International Environmental Technology Centre Osaka/Shiga Table of Contents Chapter 1: Introduction • What is Plastic? • Characterisation/ classification of Plastic • Recycle potential of different types of plastic Chapter 2: Conducting “Waste AssessmentQuantification & Characterisation • The Purpose of Waste Assessment • Determining the Approach • Setting the Boundaries • Categorisation of Solid waste • o Residential o Commercial o Industrial o Construction & demolition o WEEE waste Waste Quantification & Characterisation o Records Examination o Waste Sort Chapter 3: Waste Plastics Management System / Practices 11 • Legal and Institutional Setting 12 • Institutional Capacity and Infrastructure 13 • Financing Mechanisms 14 • Technology Adopted 15 Chapter 4: Waste management choices & technology options 16 • Technology options 16 Chapter Introduction What Are Plastics? All plastics are polymers mostly containing carbon and hydrogen and few other elements like chlorine, nitrogen etc polymers are made up of small molecules called as monomers which combine and form single large molecule called polymer When this long chain of monomers breaks at certain points or when lower molecular weight fractions are formed this is termed as degradation of polymer This is reverse of polymerization If such scission of bonds occurs randomly it is called as ‘Random De-Polymerization’ Plastics have occupied every spectrum of our life because they are • Light weight • Non Corrosive • Easily moldable • Ease of Manufacture • Economical • Non Bio-degradable Today, every vital sector of the economy starting from agriculture to packaging, automobile, building construction, communication or InfoTech has been virtually revolutionized by the applications of plastics Classification/Characterization of Plastic Waste: Various types of commonly available plastics are classified on the basis of the polymer from which they are made All type of plastics is mainly divided into these types PET (polyethylene terephthalate): plastic soft drink and water bottles, beer bottles, mouthwash bottles, salad dressing containers, boil-in food pouches, processed meat packages HDPE (high density polyethylene): milk bottles, detergent bottles, oil bottles, toys, plastic bags Page of 25 PVC (polyvinyl chloride): food wrap, vegetable oil bottles, blister packaging .LDPE (low density polyethylene): bread bags, frozen food bags, squeezable bottles, fiber, tote bags, bottles, clothing, furniture, carpet, shrink-wraps, garment bags PP (polypropylene): margarine and yogurt containers, caps for containers, wrapping to replace cellophane PS (polystyrene): egg cartons, fast food trays, disposable plastic silverware Other: This code indicates that the item is made with a resin other than the six listed above, or a combination of different resins Recycle Potential of Various Type of Plastics • Plastics Easy To Recycle: The easiest and most common plastics to recycle are made of polyethylene terephthalate (PETE) and are assigned the number Examples include soda and water bottles, medicine containers, and many other common consumer product containers Once it has been processed by a recycling facility, PETE can become fiberfill for winter coats, sleeping bags and life jackets It can also be used to make bean bags, rope, car bumpers, tennis ball felt, combs, cassette tapes, sails for boats, furniture and, of course, other plastic bottles Number is reserved for high-density polyethylene plastics These include heavier containers that hold laundry detergents and bleaches as well as milk, shampoo and motor oil Plastic labeled with the number is often recycled into toys, piping, plastic lumber and rope Like plastic designated number 1, it is widely accepted at recycling centers Number goes on polystyrene (Styrofoam) items such as coffee cups, disposable cutlery, meat trays, packing “peanuts” and insulation It is widely accepted because it can be reprocessed into many items, including cassette tapes and rigid foam insulation Page of 25 • Plastics Less Commonly Recycled: Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) commonly used in plastic pipes, shower curtains, medical tubing, vinyl dashboards, and even some baby bottle nipples, gets number Like numbers (wrapping films, grocery and sandwich bags, and other containers made of low-density polyethylene) and (polypropylene containers used in Tupperware, among other products), few municipal recycling centers will accept it due to its very low rate of recyclability • Hardest Plastic To Recycle: Last, but far from least, are items crafted from various combinations of the aforementioned plastics or from unique plastic formulations not commonly used Usually imprinted with a number or nothing at all, these plastics are the most difficult to recycle and, as such, are seldom collected or recycled More ambitious consumers can feel free to return such items to the product manufacturers to avoid contributing to the local waste stream, and instead put the burden on the makers to recycle or dispose of the items properly Page of 25 Chapter Conducting “Waste Assessment”-Quantification & Characterisation Introduction: The training module has been prepared to facilitate collection of information on waste plastics, which could be recovered either from mix waste or could be recovered directly at source from different waste generating sectors, viz domestic, commercial, industrial, construction and demolition and WEEE/E-waste This module expects to help in estimating the trend of waste plastics generation by each generator type or sector as per demographic and socioeconomic trends of solid waste generation The training module aims to build capacities of stakeholders like municipal corporation, NGOs, etc in assessment of plastic waste generated in their cities and a decision making tool for better and efficient management Purpose of Waste Assessment The waste assessment is essential to design and plan the waste management strategy: The data on current and future trends of waste plastics is the basic requirement to develop a viable system for converting waste plastics into a resource (energy or useful material) In this regard, data on different waste streams will be analyzed to develop the current and projected scenario for: • Developing a system for converting waste plastics ; • Generating comprehensive information on the quantity and type of recyclable waste plastics and recoverable materials/energy to prioritize the recovery opportunities; • Developing baseline for continued long-term measurement of system performance; • Generating information on the different sub-streams of waste plastics to design, implement and monitor an effective and efficient system for collection, transportation, recycling, treatment, recovery, and disposal of various sub-streams of waste plastics; and • Providing comparison of waste plastics composition and waste plastics diversion accomplishments for continuing improvements in overall integrated solid waste management system based on 3R (reduce, reuse and recycle) approach Page of 25 Determining the Approach The approach for waste assessment is to identify, assess and analyse the plastic waste generation patterns from different waste streams and design an efficient waste management plan The key to any efficient management system and practices are accurate assessment and future estimations of data This training module plans to provide methodologies for assessment of waste plastics generated in a city and possible options for management Setting the boundaries The first step towards any assessment is determining and setting the boundaries for assessment This includes the clear definition and demarcation of geo-political and administrative boundaries based on the sectors and/or waste generators Geographical Size of the Area and Zoning A map is required from local authorities that identify the geographical and administrative boundaries with geographical area and land zone planning Population size and Growth Time series data of the population and future projections are required The distribution of population among various zones will also be needed to draw out future estimations of waste generation Socio-Economic Patterns The information on socioeconomic patterns is required to assess their influence over the current and future waste plastics generation levels and trends For example, there may be strong correlation with the economic growth and generation of waste in developing countries The rate of urbanization and industrialization may also have a strong influence on the waste generation Furthermore, these trends may have stronger correlation with generation of waste plastics as proportion of waste plastics within municipal and industrial waste is rapidly increasing The other possible socio-economic patterns may include gifts and plastic packaging, goods predominately made of plastic instead of other materials, refrigeration of foods wrapped in plastics, shopping malls providing plastic bags, etc Size and Number of Industries and Commercial Undertakings The information on the size and number of industries and other commercial undertakings, according to their type or clusters as per industrial classification is required to formulate the Page of 25 data collection strategies, as various type clusters may generate specific types and quantity of waste plastics Administrative Boundaries and Responsibilities The information on the administrative roles of various departments and their jurisdiction will be required as baseline information on the institutional arrangements This information will also cover the responsibilities of various actors (government, industry, community) in collection, transportation, treatment, recycling, and disposal of different types of waste streams This would help in assessing the institutional gaps that need to be filled in to effectively manage waste plastics that is generate, transported to disposal site, and recycled Information Required For a particular city, the information could be collected by utilizing the following format: I Maps from local authorities identifying the geographical and administrative boundaries where waste plastics are generated collected, transported, treated, recycled and disposed If any of these activities falls outside the city boundaries, then that should be clearly indicated II Population size and growth: Time-series data with future projections, distribution of population among various zones, number of single-family and multi-family buildings and average size of inhabitants This would help to make projections in to future for waste plastics generation III Size and number of industries and commercial undertakings, which generate waste plastics, as per national or local classification IV Regulations, direct and indirect, addressing waste plastics V List of material types with reference to various types of waste plastics Usually waste plastics could be classified in two forms (soft or film and rigid plastic), but if there is a need, based on the targets for waste plastics recycling, then further classification, as shown in next chapter, could be carried out VI Primary data on waste plastics and its proportion in overall waste Categorisation of Solid waste Plastic waste is an important component in all streams of waste It has become increasingly important because of steady rise in its generation patterns over the last few years To assist the process of assessment, waste generated in a city can be divided into sectors based on source of generation The key sectors are listed below: Page of 25 Residential Waste Residential waste refers to solid waste generated by households This waste may contain organic waste (for example from kitchen and gardens), recyclable waste (for example plastics, paper, cans, etc.), non-recyclable waste (that has no recycling value), and hazardous waste (batteries, some oils, etc.) Some of the waste plastics are retained by the households for reuse or selling those to recyclers This information at generation source is vital to estimate the overall quantity and quality of waste plastics for designing a recycling facility Commercial Waste On the similar lines with the assessment of waste plastics in residential waste, the commercial entities such as shopping malls, markets, offices etc also generate substantial waste plastics Some of the waste plastics are retained by the individual entities for reuse or selling those to recyclers This information at generation source is vital to estimate the overall quantity and quality of waste plastics for designing a recycling facility Construction and Demolition (C&D) Waste In India, C&D waste may not contain substantial portion of waste plastics However, this could be checked at local level to confirm if C&D waste also contains waste plastics which are being either recycled or disposed at landfill Industrial waste Industrial waste can be both hazardous and non-hazardous Usually, industrial waste is not considered as municipal waste; however, in some places, non-hazardous waste including waste plastics is disposed of at municipal disposal facilities Some or all of the waste plastics generated by industries may be directly sold to recyclers Hence this information would be useful for designing a recycling activity in the city WEEE/E-waste Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) or E-waste is one of the fastest growing waste streams in the world In developing countries like China and India, though annual generation per capita is less than kg, it is growing at an exponential pace in these countries Composition of WEEE/ E-waste is very diverse and differs in products across different categories It contains more than 1000 different substances, which fall under “hazardous” and “non-hazardous” categories Broadly, it consists of ferrous (50%) and nonferrous metals (13%), plastics (21%) and other constitutes like glass, wood & plywood, concrete and ceramics, rubber etc Usually, most of the plastic components from E-waste are Page of 25 dismantled and sold to recyclers This information would be vital to assess the overall quantity and quality of waste plastics available within a city However, in India, since segregation of waste is not practised at any stage of waste generation and primary collection, it can be difficult to differentiate the waste into the above categories Keeping this in mind, the waste generated should be divided into one or two prominent streams based on quantum of waste generated by each stream like residential or commercial For example, the generated waste can be categorised into residential or commercial based on location of collection centres, assuming that the major waste deposited at collection centres is from one type of source Plastic Waste Quantification & Characterisation Plastic waste quantification and characterisation will be conducted through sample surveys at bot collection points and dumpsite/landfill Sample size determination The sample size should be determined based on two parameters: socio-economic composition of the society and adequate geographical representation Sample survey: The sample survey has to be designed keeping in mind the plastic waste generation patterns of the city Since, in most of the Indian cities, solid waste generated from different streams like residential, commercial, industrial, etc is dumped at common collection points, these collection points serve as a good point for conducting the survey However, survey can be conducted at different depending on sources of plastic waste generation Collection Point Survey Both designated and informal collection points were identified in key residential and commercial areas for baseline survey The sample sites were selected from across the geographical spread of the cities to include adequate representation of localities with different demographic and economic profile Number of samples: n Total weight of samples: a kg Total weight of Plastic: b kg Therefore, percentage plastic content = Page of 25 Total weight of Plastic × 100 Total weight of samples Dumpsite / Landfill site Survey Primary surveys carried out at landfill site provide a fair idea of the different types of waste being generated in each city and the composition of the waste (with particular reference to the contribution of plastics) It also allows comparison between the waste compositions at collection and disposal sites, thereby providing insight into the retrieval of materials of value by the informal sector The landfill site survey also helped in estimating the total quantity of waste generated in each city on the basis of the numbers and capacities of disposal vehicles entering the landfill each day Apparatus needed: While conducting the sample surveys, adequate measures should be taken while handling the waste, to avoid contamination Gloves Weighing apparatus Other Methods: A few other methods can also be used for quantification waste generated in the city Records Examination In most of the municipal corporations, the mixed solid waste from all the collection centres is deposited at the landfill site and daily records are maintained of vehicles carrying waste at the site Regular examination of this data can help in quantifying the solid waste generated in the city However, sample estimations for quantifying amount of plastic waste should be done in such a case Waste Sort Waste sorting of solid waste is done to analyse the types of plastic waste generated Waste sorting should be done at source of generation of waste stream like residential, commercial, industrial, etc to understand the plastic waste generation in a city At Generation: This study method produces waste composition data that can be correlated to specific types of waste generators, such as specific categories of business or industry, multifamily buildings, or single-family residences in specific neighborhoods Waste samples are obtained at Page of 25 the location where they were generated – e.g., from the dumpsters or disposal areas of the business or building in question At Disposal Facility: This method produces the most accurate waste characterization data, and it is especially suitable for waste that is typically composed of many small pieces of numerous materials Generally, an entire vehicle-load of waste is identified for sampling, but only a portion of the load is pulled out for actual sorting This method is nearly essential for thorough characterization of residential or commercial waste It is less useful in characterizing waste that typically consists of large piece of material, such as some loads of construction and demolition waste Because the method is employed at the disposal facility, it is of little use in correlating waste composition with specific types of waste generators, such as particular types of business Waste projections The future projections for solid waste generation can be estimated keeping in mind the growth in population only The other influencing factors like change in waste consumption patterns should also been considered Waste generated – N MT/day Per capita generation = total waste generated Population = A gm/capita/day Projected generation of Plastic: Projected population = B lakhs Per capita generation = A gm/capita/day Total Waste generated = Projected population x Per capita generation = B × 100000 × A kg × 1000 Page 10 of 25 Chapter 3: Waste Plastics Management System / Practices General patterns of waste generation in urban India indicate increasing trends in terms of quantum of generation and percentage of plastics This is arguably an outcome of the urbanisation phenomena that is leading to an increase in the spread and population of cities Most Indian cities are ill-equipped in dealing with this expanding stream of waste and leading to serious public health concerns This Chapter provides basic understanding and formats for collection of the information on current solid waste management system in order to: • Analyze the availability, enforcement and impact of regulations and economic tools; • Assess the institutional framework, resources and jurisdictions for current institutions; • Analyze the efficiency and effectiveness of collection, treatment and disposal system including technologies; • Understand the role of different stakeholders at different levels of waste plastics management chain; and • Identify the challenges and opportunities to improve waste plastics management based on 3R (reduce, reuse and recycling) approach This Chapter aims to collect and assess the information for waste plastics management system and practices including regulations and economic tools, institutions and resources, coverage of the services and technology, and role of various stakeholders The goal of data collection for waste plastics (quantification and characterization of various waste streams) and existing management systems (collection, transportation, treatment, disposal, recycling and recovery) is to develop a viable plan for converting waste plastics into a resource The assessment of the management systems may follow the following roadmap: • Coverage: Before starting to assess the management system, it is important to define the management system for solid waste management that usually covers waste plastics There may be more than one management systems to address solid waste from different sources and/or different types of solid wastes including waste plastics Solid waste management systems include regulations and laws, institutions, financial mechanisms, technology and infrastructure and stakeholder participation in solid waste management chain Page 11 of 25 • Assessment of individual management systems: If there are more than one management systems to handle solid waste in general and waste plastics in particular, then these analyzed individually and compared to see the similarities and difference in each of these systems For general purpose, the guidelines classify solid waste management in three systems, viz.: municipal solid waste management, industrial solid waste management, and hazardous solid waste management However, this categorization can vary based on local/national institutional arrangements and regulations To analyze solid waste management systems in general and waste plastic management systems in particular, the data and information is required to be collected on the following aspects Legal and institutional setting Institutional capacity and Infrastructure Financing mechanisms Technology Stakeholder participation Legal Framework The legal framework overlooks the basic rules and regulations governing the waste plastics management and also solid waste management in a city Regulatory, economic and voluntary instruments may be available in general or may be available for each part of solid waste management chain including waste minimization (source reduction), segregation at source, storage and collection, transportation, treatment, disposal, and recycling and recovery Laws and Acts Firstly, the laws and acts pertaining to solid waste management should be collected There could be direct laws or acts addressing either overall solid waste management or a particular aspect of solid waste management chain, for example recycling and recovery Solid waste management can also be indirectly part of policies addressing issues such as various economic sectors, like industries, agriculture, healthcare facilities, construction and demolition activities, etc These also should be considered during the analysis Regulations Secondly, information on all the relevant regulations should be collected This may include various standards covering production and consumption for source reduction, segregation at Page 12 of 25 source, storage and collection of various types of solid wastes, transportation, treatment, final disposal, and recycling and recovery The standards may also be available for technology and infrastructure, for example construction and operation of landfills and incinerators Economic Instruments Thirdly, the information should be collected on all the relevant economic instruments addressing one or more aspects of solid waste management chain Financial disincentives in the form of charges, levy, fine and penalty for waste generators could be a common economic instrument Economic incentives, such as subsidies or payback, for recycling could be another common economic instrument Some examples of economic instruments could be as under: Enforcement Regulatory and economic instruments could only make a difference if these are properly enforced at all the levels Therefore, an assessment of the level of enforcement is vital to make an overall assessment of the policies The opinion on the enforcement levels may differ within different stakeholders, such as government, waste generators or handlers, and community Hence, to get a comparatively appropriate assessment, opinions from all the major stakeholders should be sought Institutional Capacity and Infrastructure Solid waste management systems/ mechanisms may vary from city to city In India, Municipal authorities are autonomous bodies that provide essential services to the citizens at the local level These Urban Local bodies were recognized by the 74th constitutional amendment in 1992, which clearly defined their roles and responsibilities They need to perform certain mandatory duties and are required to raise sufficient financial resources to meet their obligations Among those mandatory duties is a minimum level of solid waste management (SWM) service The systems may be classified with respect to the responsible institution There may be more than one institutions involved at same level or for same type of activity, for example informal and formal sector recycling or public and private sector for collection and transportation of municipal waste However, if there are more than one institution responsible for different types of solid waste or waste generated by different sources then it is considered as separate management systems We need to collect information on all the institutions, currently responsible at any level of solid waste management The information should as detailed as possible to identify their role or mandate, institutional framework, and human resources and sources for financing their activities The data should be captured under the following key heads: Page 13 of 25 Role or mandate of the institution Institutional Framework Human Resources Sources of funding Financing Mechanisms This section aims to understand the financial structure supporting the SWM system in a city The Municipal authorities are responsible for raising funds for Solid waste management The state laws governing municipal authorities establish their powers to levy taxes, chares, and fees for raising money to meet their statutory requirements Private Sector Participation (PSP): There is an increasing trend of private sector participation in waste plastics collection and recycling This private sector participation is visible in collection, transportation, treatment, disposal, and recycling of waste plastics Private companies are taking up major projects such as converting waste plastics into energy or material source under various arrangements such as BOT (build-operate-transfer) basis Franchise is another common way for private sector participation, where private sector has right to collect waste plastics within the agreed location and sell recyclable waste The financial resources available can be captured in the following table: Financial Mechanisms for Solid Waste Management Chain Type of Service Organization Direct Revenue Waste Plastics from Residential and Commercial Sector Collection Transportation Treatment Disposal Recycling Waste Plastics from Industrial Sector Page 14 of 25 Financing Mode Local Government/ National Government/ International Cooperation Private Sector (Mention Type of PSP) Technologies adopted Solid waste management chain requires intensive use of environmentally sound technology (ESTs) for collection, transportation, treatment, disposal, and recycle and recovery The technology could be as simple as containers for primary collection to as complicated as incinerators for disposal of hazardous waste The possible technological interventions within solid waste management chain are as follows: Primary collection and transfer stations: This may include the waste collection bins for segregated municipal waste and special containers for hazardous waste Material, construction, labeling and storage of the collection containers are also important Construction and location of transfer station is quite crucial to avoid adverse effects due to odour, breeding of vectors such as flies and mosquitoes, and entry of birds or cats and dogs The transfer stations should be located and constructed in such a way that it is convenient for small carts to unload solid waste and for bigger vehicles to collect and transport that waste Transportation: This covers all types of vehicles under operation to transport solid waste from waste generation point to transfer station; and from transfer station to treatment and disposal site Treatment: This includes separation of different types of waste for materials recovery and recycling as well as for different types of treatment before final disposal Hence at this level of solid waste, technology may cover equipment for separation of various types of materials, equipment for shredding of final disposable waste and technology for the treatment of final disposal waste Final Disposal: Landfill is the most commonly used technology around the world Details about the type of landfill - fully aerobic, semi-aerobic and anaerobic and practices followed For example: open-burning, open-dumping, etc should be captured Recycling and Recovery: This includes various types of activities including recycling of reusable materials such as plastic and glass containers, recycling of materials to into industrial production such as paper and iron, converting waste into a energy such as burning tires in cement kiln to produce heat, and converting waste into a resource such composting and landfill gas Hence technology can determine the level and sophistication of recycling and recovery activities Page 15 of 25 Chapter 4: Waste management choices & technology options Technology options Conventional Waste Disposal Methods and viability Land Filling Waste Plastic materials are dumped for land-filling and they become “mummified” after decades It is worth mentioning that the plastic is not a bio-degradable material hence this leads to the soil contamination and in long term serves as a cause of severe environmental hazard such as degradation of soil fertility, pollution of surface & subsoil water Besides the above drawbacks, the embodied energy present in the plastic is lost Incineration It is possible to incinerate mixed plastics to recover energy However it is not possible to so in a controlled manner to reduce off-gas pollution i.e dioxins & fleuron to desirable standards Hence this method of plastic waste management is generally not preferred The treatment cost of the gases is often more than the energy recovered Blast furnace Waste plastic may be used in place of coke and pulverized coal after forming into particles of the required size and subsequently injected into the blast furnace The injected plastic is broken down to form reducer gas (CO + H2), which rises through the raw material in the furnace and reacts with the iron ore The injection of chlorine-contained plastics such as PVC in the blast furnace generates hydrogen chloride The limestone used in the blast furnace to control the composition of the slag neutralizes the hydrogen chloride in the furnace and decrease its concentration But substitution of coke with plastic is limited to approximately 40% wt only (Ref: Shutov F “Effective energy and gas emission saving using plastic waste recycling technologies”, Expert group meeting, 2-3/ Dec /1999, Vienna international center, Vienna, Austria) Gasification Gasification is essentially thermal decomposition of organic matter under inert atmospheric conditions or in a limited supply of air If the feed contains chlorinated compound like PVC then it is advisable to gasification at lower temperature to remove chlorine then the temperature is raised to convert higher hydrocarbons There are problems in controlling the combustion Page 16 of 25 temperature and the quantity of unburned gases (Reference US Patent Application No 20030037714) Recycling Recycling is not the complete solution for disposal of the waste plastic After third/fourth recycling the plastic is totally unfit for reuse and hence ultimately it ends up in Land filling Some types of the plastics are not suitable for recycling However, this method is only suitable for processing segregated plastic materials and is not suitable for assorted municipal waste plastic The problems associated with the recycling process are as follows: • Many types of plastics are used hence it is difficult to segregate them for specific purpose • Plastics contain a wide range of fillers & additives • Many times plastic is associated with metal, Glass etc • Sorting of plastic is technically difficult as well as expensive • Recycling of plastic degrades the quality of the end product Deriving fuel (petrol, diesel, LPG) from Plastic This process is simple batch process enabling us to process any type of plastic waste Forced heated air, is used to indirectly heat the feedstock inside the process vessel The air is continually recycled in a loop to minimize heat loss Vacuum is maintained inside the process vessel The energy transferred to the plastic feedstock from the hot air is used to depolymerize, or "crack", the plastic into synthetic crude oil Oil is chromatographically removed waste from plastic and aggregated several on-site the from vessels for micro- refinement or sent to existing commercial refinement facilities Entire system is a close loop process, can run on its non Page 17 of 25 condensable gases Waste products are recycled for energy usage (gases), treated and reused or disposed (liquids), or made available for commercial use (solids).Products of this process are primary crude oil which can be refined in the existing refineries All types of plastic can be used under this process Use of Plastics Waste as Reducing Agent in Blast Furnace For the smelting of Iron ore for producing pig iron, traditionally coke is used in the blast furnace to generate carbon monoxide (CO) and heat Many steel companies use pulverized coal, to reduce the cost of raw material Waste Plastics have replaced a part of coke or pulverized coal for producing pig iron from iron ore Plastics, when burnt in the absence of sufficient oxygen, produce CO apart from generating the heat energy This property of plastics has been utilized in blast furnace The Basic Process: The plastics waste is first formed into suitable size either by crushing or pelletizing as necessary, and subsequently injected into the blast furnace from the tuyeres at the base of the furnace with hot air The injected plastic waste material is broken down to form reducer gas – Carbon Monoxide (CO) and Hydrogen (H2) The reducer gas rises through the raw material layers in the blast furnace and reacts with iron ore to produce pig iron, the gas, after the reduction reaction, is recovered at the top of the blast furnace and is reused as a fuel gas in heating furnaces and generators within the steel plant Use of plastic waste in cement kilns One of the most effective methods of recycling of plastics waste for recovery of energy is the use of plastics waste as an alternative to possible fuel in Cement Kilns Plastics Waste can replace approximately 15% of normal fossil fuel in Cement Kilns In fact, any material having calorific value of at least 2,500 kcals are accepted as an alternative fuel in cement kilns, provided it is available at a cost less than the normal fossil fuel: coal Plastics waste, which have quite high calorific values, some which having more than that of coal, offer a viable alternative fuel As Cement Kilns are operated at a very high temperature in the range of 1500°C or more, there is no risk of generation of any toxic emission due to the burning of plastics waste A million ton capacity cement plant can consume about 10000 MTs to 30,000 MTs of plastics waste annually, creating an enormous opportunity for the proper management of plastics waste, while recovering precious energy out of it for production of cement – one of the basic materials of infrastructure development Page 18 of 25 Central Pollution Control Board has realized this opportunity of using cement kilns as an alternative incinerator and has allowed some cement plants for conducting operational trials under controlled conditions and supervision Waste management systems / practices With increase in generation quantities of waste plastic, the need to understand and establish efficient management practises has become imperative The municipal authorities or state governments need to look at different approaches involving the different stakeholders for efficient and safe management system There is immense potential of looking at alternative management resources utilising the private sector, which needs to be explored in the local context Potential Role of the Private Sector According to India’s constitution, SWM falls within the purview of the state government The activities are local ones and are entrusted to urban local bodies (ULBs) through state legislation However, many municipal authorities in India provide SWM services very inefficiently Old and inappropriate vehicles and tools for collection, inadequate transport, and inefficient disposal not only cause unhygienic working conditions and slow down the process but also severely affect the environment Productivity is very low, resulting in a high unit cost of service Collection coverage rates are only 50 to 70 percent The collected waste is disposed of at open dumping grounds within or outside cities, causing health hazards and environmental degradation This unsatisfactory situation makes it necessary for the municipal authorities to seriously consider new concepts and approaches for improving services Private sector participation is an interesting option for boosting performance, whereby the municipal authorities change their role from service provider to regulator and service facilitator Different forms of collaboration with the private sector can be envisaged, involving different types of agreements and preconditions of partnership Enabling improvements through the participation of the private sector depends on the political will for change; clear agreements and contracts; the public authority’s ability to regulate the service, monitor performance, and enforce the terms of agreement; financial capacities; and mutual trust between all partners In the current legal situation, the municipal authorities may involve the private sector in the following SWM tasks: • Door-to-door collection of waste, because municipal authorities not provide this service Page 19 of 25 • Street sweeping in unserved areas, without disturbing or retrenching existing street sweepers • Provision of large containers for secondary waste storage in various parts of the city • Construction, operation, and maintenance of transfer stations • Extension of coverage and increased transportation of waste without replacing existing workers • Provision of the vehicle fleet and equipment for transporting waste • Construction of treatment facilities (composting, waste-to-energy conversion, sanitary landfill, and so on) • Operation and maintenance of treatment facilities Raising Public Awareness and Community Involvement A clean city is a concerted effort by the city managers and the civil society The decision-making process for managing solid waste in urban areas is going through a paradigm shift from the “decide, announce, defend” premise of local authorities to more involved public participation Solid waste management (SWM) is an activity in which public participation holds the key to success An urban local body (ULB) can never be successful in SWM without active community participation To economically and efficiently operate a waste management program, regardless of the strategy, requires significant cooperation from the waste generators Public involvement is therefore necessary in all waste management and disposal activities Awareness and education campaigns should target municipal authorities, elected representatives, schools, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), media, trade associations, families, and the public at large Planning for Community Involvement Initiatives The first step for the local body is to define a methodology for reaching out to the community Informing and involving the community, as well as creating channels for all stakeholders to participate in making decisions and to voice their concerns, are very important steps for successful SWM strategies A common approach is to consult these groups to ascertain people’s perception of the existing SWM services, their expectations, and the extent to which they are willing to support and participate in the process ULBs may approach NGOs, community-based organizations (CBOs), secondary school and college students, or members of other institutions for help in the task of involving the community The initial step is to identify the stakeholders Stakeholders are all the people, groups, and institutions that are affected by the SWM system Most generally, stakeholders include Page 20 of 25 households, businesses, industries, rag pickers, and the local government Any intervention in the existing SWM system will affect stakeholders differently; some of the stakeholders can influence the decision-making process It is important therefore to identify stakeholders who might have a negative impact (such as informal rag pickers) and those who can influence the decision-making process (such as business owners and neighbors of a new landfill) IEC Strategies for SWM Many IEC methods can be used; the right one depends on the goals and objectives It is important to make people understand the importance of having good SWM systems and the steps they can take to help municipal authorities and solid waste managers and workers perform their work better The main objectives of IEC are to make people understand • The concept of and need for source segregation • The need to store waste at source in two separate receptacles—one for biodegradable waste and one for recyclable waste—and the need to keep toxic and hazardous waste separate • The role citizens can play in primary collection of waste from the household and handing over of the waste materials to rag pickers or waste collectors • The need to pay for waste collection and disposal services • The need to use litter bins on the roads and public places sensibly and sensitively • The impact of solid waste on public health and the environment • The strategies described in the following subsections are examples of communication and motivation campaigns Page 21 of 25 Case Study: Karachi, Pakistan In a pilot project in an urban slum in Karachi, Pakistan, volunteers from the community formed a financial and institutional committee to monitor and supervise waste collection The volunteers consist of women—especially unmarried women who can devote more time to such voluntary activities—and come from the lanes and streets they supervise Two such volunteers in each lane and street supervise the sweepers, ensure that the waste is collected timely and appropriately, and collect user fees These women have formed a CBO, which is entrusted with the task of collecting funds and paying sweepers Weekly and monthly meetings should ensure appropriate planning and evaluation of the system The charge for waste collection is US$0.25 per household per month Widows with no source of income are exempt from charges A grace period of one month is given to each household for the payment of the charge Source: Zurbrügg and Ahmed 1999 Bangalore: Pilot Projects the Key to the Success of City-Level Initiatives Bangalore has been the testing ground for various local SWM initiatives in the past 15 years A number of NGOs and CBOs have conceptualized the popularly termed decentralized SWM systems by involving the resident community Essentially these systems arose out of the need to compensate for inadequacies in the existing services The initiatives included setting up systems for doorstep collection and localized composting The system involved rag pickers and other employable men and women from lower economic strata to find resellable and recyclable items in discarded material Education on and awareness of neighbourhood cleanliness and experiments with the various composting methodologies were also carried out Some activities are small scale, involving a number of blocks within a ward; others cover various wards or are citywide initiatives It is important to recognize that these local initiatives are responsible for bringing about the changes and improvements in waste management systems now enjoyed under Swachha Bangalore Page 22 of 25 Motivation and Training of Municipal Officials Municipal officials should understand their role and relationship with the rest of the community The following messages should be given to municipal officials: • Health officers and engineers play key roles in the SWM system, but they need to understand that they ultimately respond to the needs of the population • Therefore, receiving feedback and concerns from stakeholders is essential • Many times people are sceptical of working with municipal authorities • In any community participation project, municipal officers need to take the backseat and share their powers with the waste management committee • However, they still have the technical knowledge and need to properly communicate when decisions are not suitable • Municipal officials need to enable the training and capacity building of resident welfare associations (RWAs) Officials should empower RWAs but not overburden them Solid Waste and Carbon Finance Because municipal solid waste is a significant source of methane emissions, solid waste projects can take advantage of the carbon finance mechanism As already mentioned, methane is a gas 21 times more potent as a GHG than carbon dioxide; it is produced when organic waste decomposes under anaerobic conditions Landfills in particular are one of the greatest sources of methane emissions Projects that qualify for carbon credits not only bring the benefit of additional revenue to the project, but also contribute to increasing the life of the landfill, generating new sources of energy, creating additional jobs, and improving environmental conditions In many cases, solid waste projects applying for carbon funds increase their internal rate of return by more than percent To register under the CDM, the project has to meet the following criteria: • The project leads to measurable reductions in GHG • It represents an additional activity, meaning that it does not represent the common practice or normal course of action • It contributes to the sustainable development of the country The following SWM projects can include carbon finance components to reduce methane emissions: • Landfill gas recovery • Composting • Incineration and anaerobic digestion • Recycling Page 23 of 25 [...]... fair idea of the different types of waste being generated in each city and the composition of the waste (with particular reference to the contribution of plastics) It also allows comparison between the waste compositions at collection and disposal sites, thereby providing insight into the retrieval of materials of value by the informal sector The landfill site survey also helped in estimating the total... subsidies or payback, for recycling could be another common economic instrument Some examples of economic instruments could be as under: Enforcement Regulatory and economic instruments could only make a difference if these are properly enforced at all the levels Therefore, an assessment of the level of enforcement is vital to make an overall assessment of the policies The opinion on the enforcement levels... not the complete solution for disposal of the waste plastic After third/fourth recycling the plastic is totally unfit for reuse and hence ultimately it ends up in Land filling Some types of the plastics are not suitable for recycling However, this method is only suitable for processing segregated plastic materials and is not suitable for assorted municipal waste plastic The problems associated with the. .. of IEC are to make people understand • The concept of and need for source segregation • The need to store waste at source in two separate receptacles—one for biodegradable waste and one for recyclable waste and the need to keep toxic and hazardous waste separate • The role citizens can play in primary collection of waste from the household and handing over of the waste materials to rag pickers or waste. .. most of the municipal corporations, the mixed solid waste from all the collection centres is deposited at the landfill site and daily records are maintained of vehicles carrying waste at the site Regular examination of this data can help in quantifying the solid waste generated in the city However, sample estimations for quantifying amount of plastic waste should be done in such a case Waste Sort Waste. .. preferred The treatment cost of the gases is often more than the energy recovered Blast furnace Waste plastic may be used in place of coke and pulverized coal after forming into particles of the required size and subsequently injected into the blast furnace The injected plastic is broken down to form reducer gas (CO + H2), which rises through the raw material in the furnace and reacts with the iron ore The. .. ore Plastics, when burnt in the absence of sufficient oxygen, produce CO apart from generating the heat energy This property of plastics has been utilized in blast furnace The Basic Process: The plastics waste is first formed into suitable size either by crushing or pelletizing as necessary, and subsequently injected into the blast furnace from the tuyeres at the base of the furnace with hot air The. .. sorting of solid waste is done to analyse the types of plastic waste generated Waste sorting should be done at source of generation of waste stream like residential, commercial, industrial, etc to understand the plastic waste generation in a city At Generation: This study method produces waste composition data that can be correlated to specific types of waste generators, such as specific categories of business... generators within the steel plant Use of plastic waste in cement kilns One of the most effective methods of recycling of plastics waste for recovery of energy is the use of plastics waste as an alternative to possible fuel in Cement Kilns Plastics Waste can replace approximately 15% of normal fossil fuel in Cement Kilns In fact, any material having calorific value of at least 2,500 kcals are accepted as an... MTs of plastics waste annually, creating an enormous opportunity for the proper management of plastics waste, while recovering precious energy out of it for production of cement – one of the basic materials of infrastructure development Page 18 of 25 Central Pollution Control Board has realized this opportunity of using cement kilns as an alternative incinerator and has allowed some cement plants for