WETLANDS: ECOLOGY, CONSERVATION AND RESTORATION No part of this digital document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means The publisher has taken reasonable care in the preparation of this digital document, but makes no expressed or implied warranty of any kind and assumes no responsibility for any errors or omissions No liability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of information contained herein This digital document is sold with the clear understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering legal, medical or any other professional services WETLANDS: ECOLOGY, CONSERVATION AND RESTORATION RAYMUNDO E RUSSO EDITOR Nova Science Publishers, Inc New York Copyright © 2008 by Nova Science Publishers, Inc All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means: electronic, electrostatic, magnetic, tape, mechanical photocopying, recording or otherwise without the written permission of the Publisher For permission to use material from this book please contact us: Telephone 631-231-7269; Fax 631-231-8175 Web Site: http://www.novapublishers.com NOTICE TO THE READER The Publisher has taken reasonable care in the preparation of this book, but makes no expressed or implied warranty of any kind and assumes no responsibility for any errors or omissions No liability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of information contained in this book The Publisher shall not be liable for any special, consequential, or exemplary damages resulting, in whole or in part, from the readers’ use of, or reliance upon, this material Independent verification should be sought for any data, advice or recommendations contained in this book In addition, no responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property arising from any methods, products, instructions, ideas or otherwise contained in this publication This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information with regard to the subject matter covered herein It is sold with the clear understanding that the Publisher is not engaged in rendering legal or any other professional services If legal or any other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent person should be sought FROM A DECLARATION OF PARTICIPANTS JOINTLY ADOPTED BY A COMMITTEE OF THE AMERICAN BAR ASSOCIATION AND A COMMITTEE OF PUBLISHERS LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA Wetlands : ecology, conservation, and restoration / Raymundo E Russo (editor) p cm ISBN 978-1-60876-354-2 (E-Book) Wetland ecology Wetland conservation Wetland restoration I Russo, Raymundo E QH541.5.M3W4836 2008 577.68 dc22 2008030635 Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc New York CONTENTS Preface vii Expert Commentary Two Alternative Modes for Diffuse Pollution Control by Wetlands Chen Qingfeng, Shan Baoqing and Ma Junjian Short Communication Multiangular Imaging of Wetlands in New England Lesley-Ann L Dupigny-Giroux and Eden Furtak-Cole Research and Review Articles Chapter Wetlands: Water “Living Filters”? Ana Dordio, A J Palace Carvalho and Ana Paula Pinto Chapter Remote Sensing Data for Regional Wetland Mapping in the United States: Trends and Future Prospects Megan W Lang and Greg W McCarty Chapter Chapter Transforming Useless Swamps into Valuable Wetlands: Evaluating America’s Policy, 1970-2008 Andrea K.Gerlak and Jeanne N Clarke Dynamics of Coastal Wetlands and Land Use Changes in the Watershed: Implications for the Biodiversity Miguel Ángel Esteve, M Francisca Carreño, Francisco Robledano, Julia Martínez-Fernández and Jesús Miñano Chapter Pathogen Removal in Constructed Wetlands Kela P Weber and Raymond L Legge Chapter The Role of Harvest and Plant Decomposition in Constructed Wetlands Juan A Álvarez and Eloy Bécares 15 73 113 133 177 213 vi Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Chapter 12 Contents Nutrition and Toxicity of Inorganic Substances from Wastewater in Constructed Wetlands Zhenhua Zhang, Zed Rengel and Kathy Meney A Conceptual and Methodological Framework for the Study of Vegetated Fluvial Landscape Evolutionary Trajectories Dov Corenblit, Johannes Steiger, Eric Tabacchi and Angela M Gurnell Macrophyte Morphological Response to the Industrial Effluent Toxicity in a Constructed Wetland H R Hadad, M M Mufarrege, M Pinciroli, G Di Luca, V del Sastre and M A Maine Phytoremediation Processes for Water and Air Pollution Control in the Aspects of Nutrient and Carbon Dioxide Removals Jae Seong Rhee, Yonghui Song, Fasheng Li and Janjit Iamchaturapatr 271 295 325 Phytoplankton Biomass Regulation in Contrasting Environmental States of Temporary Pools Silvia Martín, Marta Rodríguez and David G Angeler 359 Can Tern Migrants Coexist with Urban Development and Estuarine Recreational Activities? Ken Chan, Jill Dening and Marja-Leena Malinen 373 Chapter 13 Agricultural Wetlands R Kröger Chapter 14 Profiling Cover Cycle Dynamics for Prairie Pothole Wetland Landscapes Rebecca L Phillips and Ofer Beeri Index 247 391 407 419 PREFACE Wetlands are lands where saturation with water is the dominant factor determining the nature of soil development and the types of plant and animal communities living in the soil and on its surface Wetlands vary widely because of regional and local differences in soils, topography, climate, hydrology, water chemistry, vegetation, and other factors, including human disturbance Indeed, wetlands are found from the tundra to the tropics and on every continent except Antarctica This new book brings together the latest research in the field Short Communication - Multiple view angles (MVA) or multiangular imaging represents a yet to be explored use of the remote sensing of wetlands The ability to view the landscape off-nadir (traditionally the surface is viewed at right angles) allows for the quantification of moisture stress, species separation and the proportion of vegetation to standing water in these ecosystems This commentary will focus on the ratio of two broadband wavelengths (nearinfrared to blue) derived from multiangular images acquired by the Airborne Multi-angle Imaging SpectroRadiometer (AirMISR) of wetlands across New England The resulting insights into the photointerpretation, monitoring and mapping of wetlands will be highlighted Chapter - Human societies have indirectly used natural wetlands as wastewater discharge sites for many centuries Observations of the wastewater depuration capacity of natural wetlands have led to a greater understanding of the potential of these ecosystems for pollutant assimilation and have stimulated the development of artificial wetlands systems for treatment of wastewaters from a variety of sources Constructed wetlands, in contrast to natural wetlands, are human-made systems that are designed, built and operated to emulate wetlands or functions of natural wetlands for human desires or needs Constructed wetlands have recently received considerable attention as low cost, efficient means to clean-up not only municipal wastewaters but also point and non-point wastewaters, such as acid mine drainage, agricultural effluents, landfill leachates, petrochemicals, as well as industrial effluents Currently, untreated wastewater discharge in the natural wetlands sites is becoming an increasingly abandoned practice whereas the use of constructed wetlands for treatment of wastewater is an emerging technology worldwide However, natural wetlands still play an important role in the improvement of water quality as they act as buffer zones surrounding water bodies and as a polishing stage for the effluents from conventional municipal wastewater treatment plants, before they reach the receiving water streams In fact, one of the emerging issues in environmental science has been the inefficiency of wastewater treatment plants to remove several xenobiotic organic compounds such as pesticides and pharmaceutical residues and consequent contamination of the receiving water bodies Recent viii Raymundo E Russo studies have shown that wetlands systems were able to efficiently remove many of these compounds, thus reaffirming the importance of the role which can be played by wetlands in water quality preservation The aim of this work is to present a review on the application of wetlands as “living filters” for water purification Emphasis was focused on the removal of micropollutants, especially xenobiotic organic compounds such as pharmaceuticals residues, which are not efficiently removed by conventional municipal wastewater treatment plants Furthermore, the role of wetlands as protection zones which contribute to the improvement of the aquatic ecosystems’ quality will be discussed Chapter - Historically, the biologic, aesthetic, and economic values of wetlands were largely unappreciated Wetlands within the United States have been and are continuing to disappear rapidly Efforts are being made to conserve remaining wetlands and many regulatory policies have been adopted in support of this goal To regulate the loss, preservation, and/or restoration of wetlands and to judge the effectiveness of these regulatory efforts in preserving associated ecosystem services, wetlands must be routinely monitored Wetland mapping is an essential part of this monitoring program and much effort has been made by the US state and federal governments, as well as other organizations, to provide quality wetland map products Wetland maps can serve a variety of purposes including regulation and natural resource management They can also be used to parameterize models that quantify water quality and quantity, as well as the provision of wetland ecosystem services, at the watershed scale Wetland hydrology is the most important abiotic factor controlling ecosystem function and extent, and it should therefore be a vital part of any wetland mapping or monitoring program New approaches are needed to not only map wetlands, but also to monitor wetland hydrology as it varies in response to weather, vegetation phenology, surrounding landuse change, and other anthropogenic forces including climate change Recently developed remote sensing technologies and techniques have the potential to improve the detail and reliability of wetland maps and the ability to monitor important parameters such as hydrology Various types of remotely sensed data (e.g., aerial photographs, multispectral, hyperspectral, passive microwave, radar, and lidar) have different capabilities with specific advantages and disadvantages for wetland mapping at the regional scale Although aerial photographs were traditionally used to map wetlands and infer hydrology, fine-resolution optical images are now available more frequently as commercial agencies increase satellite coverage (e.g., Quickbird and IKONOS) However, optical data, such as aerial photographs and multispectral satellite images have limitations, including their inability to detect hydrology below dense vegetative canopies and their limited ability to detect variations in hydrology (i.e., inundation and soil moisture) The restrictions of optical data are increasingly being compensated for with the use of new technologies, including synthetic aperture radar, lidar, and geospatial modeling The availability of these new data sources is increasing rapidly For example, many states in the US are now collecting synoptic state-wide coverages of lidar data The sources, strengths, and limitations of different types of remotely sensed data are reviewed in this chapter, as well as the importance of temporal and spatial resolution necessary for regional scale wetland mapping efforts The potential of multi-temporal, multi-sensor approaches that capitalize on geospatial modeling are emphasized for meeting current wetland mapping challenges Chapter - This paper traces the evolution of America’s wetland policy beginning with passage of the Clean Water Act (CWA) of 1972 This law, for the first time, established a Index lateral roots, 217, 323 law, viii, 113, 114 laws, 118 leachate, 208, 239, 254, 263, 264, 265, 358 leachates, vii, 15, 22, 60 leaching, 30, 43, 220, 223, 233, 369 lead, 20, 30, 37, 49, 51, 52, 54, 99, 115, 118, 119, 166, 186, 228, 256, 257, 258, 278, 282, 283, 321, 322, 369, 385 leadership, 120 leakage, 34, 256, 344 learning, 103 legislation, 18, 74, 115, 116, 117, 118, 123, 126, 128, 385 legislative, 74, 120, 123 levees, 127 LIFE, 168 life cycle, 248, 251, 327, 373 life expectancy, 90 life span, 358 lifespan, 122, 181 lifestyle, 385 lifetime, 27 ligands, 50 lignin, 59 likelihood, 87, 88, 137, 402, 403 limitation, 84, 180, 253, 265, 291 limitations, viii, 24, 29, 74, 80, 83, 84, 86, 94, 146, 181, 200, 201, 249 linear, 105, 191, 196, 202, 203, 225, 229, 236, 305, 350, 363, 368, 396 linear model, 196, 202, 225 linear regression, 191, 202, 203 linkage, 101 links, 290 Linux, 137 lipid, 58, 62, 254 lipids, 345 lipophilic, 63 literature, 32, 34, 37, 38, 40, 44, 52, 87, 155, 197, 200, 215, 221, 235, 237, 254, 276, 284, 333, 344, 360, 369, 374, 400 litigation, 127 liver, 48 livestock, 264, 410 local government, 96, 126 local thresholds, 284 localised, 278 localization, 297, 323 location, 76, 78, 79, 80, 101, 126, 189, 200, 281, 297, 333, 340, 344, 377, 403 logging, 170 433 London, 103, 169, 204, 206, 207, 210, 241, 266, 271, 289, 290, 292, 352, 355 long period, 24, 159, 188, 296 long-distance, 373 long-term, ix, 12, 17, 24, 30, 38, 42, 43, 48, 50, 51, 53, 55, 63, 64, 134, 136, 146, 147, 148, 152, 153, 155, 165, 166, 170, 223, 231, 252, 332, 344, 350, 352, 374, 376, 385, 386, 408, 409, 410 long-term impact, 374, 376 losses, xiii, 16, 22, 29, 123, 125, 231, 233, 252, 326, 398, 400, 417 Louisiana, 108, 119, 127 Louisiana State University, 108 low cost, 64 low temperatures, 191, 397 Luxembourg, 358 lying, 18, 99 M M.O., 108, 241 macroalgae, 164 magma, 129 magnesium, 339 magnetic, 92 Maine, 8, 9, 12, 14, 41, 52, 53, 67, 69, 89, 103, 107, 109, 110, 298, 302, 307, 308, 309, 316, 321, 322 maintenance, xiv, 17, 23, 24, 27, 62, 64, 76, 182, 188, 214, 248, 249, 274, 277, 311, 354, 391, 392, 393 maize, 258, 266, 396 malabsorption, 180 malaria, 114 mammals, 54, 180, 375 management, xi, xii, xiii, xiv, 4, 17, 35, 74, 96, 100, 101, 103, 106, 107, 116, 120, 123, 125, 126, 134, 135, 146, 150, 160, 167, 169, 172, 173, 174, 204, 214, 237, 252, 262, 264, 272, 273, 284, 286, 287, 288, 289, 343, 359, 369, 374, 386, 387, 388, 391, 392, 393, 397, 398, 402, 403, 406, 408, 410 management practices, 75, 96, 134, 146, 150, 397, 398 manganese, 50, 51, 52, 255, 258, 265, 339 mangroves, 91 manifold, 220, 363, 369 manipulation, xiv, 391 man-made, 17, 22 manufacturer, 200 manufacturing, 48 mapping, vii, viii, 7, 8, 14, 73, 75, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 109, 111, 171, 175, 417 434 Index marches, 327 marine environment, 389 maritime, 388 marsh, 18, 86, 91, 105, 110, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 148, 153, 154, 157, 158, 159, 160, 162, 166, 167, 168, 215, 240, 243, 249, 257, 259, 263, 265, 266, 356, 370, 396, 408, 409, 410, 412, 414, 415 marshes, 17, 18, 21, 80, 81, 91, 104, 108, 109, 127, 136, 152, 172, 175, 241 Maryland, 74, 78, 81, 87, 102, 105, 106, 110, 111, 118 masking, 155 mass loss, 233 mass media, 118 Massachusetts, 9, 12, 110, 387 matrix, 25, 26, 56, 61, 193, 282, 286, 296 maturation, xii, 54, 209, 210, 272, 275, 276, 279, 284, 286, 287 maturation process, xii, 272 measurement, 105, 108, 125, 181, 339 measures, 104, 123, 126, 167, 199, 287, 354, 386, 388, 406 mechanical, x, 35, 177, 187, 189, 198, 203, 218, 223, 234, 236, 272, 275, 281 media, 3, 27, 29, 30, 45, 56, 57, 182, 183, 189, 192, 193, 194, 197, 198, 201, 203, 215, 221, 249, 265, 327, 328, 332, 335, 336, 338, 339, 344, 352 median, 143 Mediterranean, ix, 133, 134, 135, 136, 146, 151, 167, 168, 170, 173, 237, 238, 242, 289, 363 Mediterranean climate, 237 medium composition, 254 melt, 86 melting, 80 melts, 188 membranes, 58, 254 meningitis, 179 mercury, 48, 69, 256, 321 meta-analysis, 112 metabolic, 28, 30, 31, 42, 52, 62, 200, 244, 257, 302, 315, 320 metabolism, 20, 31, 49, 54, 57, 59, 205, 256, 266, 326 metabolites, 59, 63, 221, 393 metal content, 308 metal ions, 50, 307 metalloids, 256, 263, 267 metals, xi, 19, 20, 30, 31, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 207, 209, 247, 249, 255, 257, 258, 261, 296, 301, 307, 309, 316, 320, 339 metazoa, 243 metazoans, 234 meteorological, methane, 243, 344 methionine, 255 methylation, 263 metric, 332 Mexico, 263, 353 Mg2+, 254, 339 microalgae, 356 microbes, 209, 222, 249, 258, 393 microbial, 17, 19, 20, 23, 28, 29, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 37, 38, 40, 43, 44, 52, 55, 57, 58, 59, 63, 65, 180, 187, 188, 189, 192, 193, 194, 198, 199, 200, 202, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 216, 219, 220, 221, 223, 233, 238, 240, 241, 242, 249, 250, 257, 263, 268, 327, 328, 331, 332, 335, 338, 350, 351, 356, 402, 403 microbial cells, 204 microbial communities, 192, 205, 234, 350 microbial community, 198, 199, 200, 202, 208, 210 microbiota, 44 microclimate, 216 microcosm, 192 microcosms, 60, 192, 196, 244, 250, 251, 252, 260, 261, 264, 265, 268, 269, 355, 356, 358 microenvironment, 192, 193, 221 microenvironments, 198, 217, 357 micronutrients, xi, 247, 251, 257, 328 microorganism, 179, 191, 216, 351 microorganisms, 20, 26, 28, 30, 33, 34, 37, 38, 42, 46, 47, 52, 55, 57, 58, 59, 62, 179, 180, 181, 190, 194, 203, 204, 205, 208, 209, 214, 215, 221, 233, 234, 236, 237, 258, 263, 332, 335, 338, 339, 350, 357, 395 micro-organisms, 395 microscope, 297 microscopy, 199, 201, 297, 309, 312 microwave, viii, 73, 75, 82, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 103, 104, 107, 109 migrant, xiv, 373, 378, 379, 380, 382, 384, 385, 386 migrants, 373, 378, 386 migration, 279, 378, 383, 385, 388 migratory birds, 19, 120, 384, 388 mineral oils, 60, 248 mineralization, 20, 29, 31, 37, 42, 43, 220, 335 mineralized, 59, 397 minerals, 43, 51, 56, 57, 221, 330 mining, 16, 19, 23, 48, 242, 248, 255 Ministry of Environment, 352 Mississippi, 353, 391, 394, 395, 396, 399 Missouri, 290, 292 mitigation policy, 120 mixing, 217 mixture analysis, 89, 91 Index mobility, 257 modeling, viii, 74, 100, 101, 107, 111, 196, 352 models, viii, xi, 73, 77, 92, 96, 100, 101, 104, 107, 166, 184, 185, 186, 198, 199, 213, 275, 277, 366 moisture, vii, viii, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 14, 38, 40, 56, 74, 80, 82, 83, 89, 91, 93, 95, 96, 98, 100, 103, 104, 106, 107, 109, 110, 137, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 147, 148, 150, 152, 166, 268, 351 moisture content, 150, 351 molecular mechanisms, 312 molecular oxygen, 58 molecular structure, 56 molecules, 30, 33, 56 momentum, 128, 393 money, 128 monolayer, 193 morphogenetic processes, 272 morphological, xii, 276, 280, 289, 290, 295, 296, 297, 298, 311, 320 morphology, xii, 83, 199, 289, 296, 297, 311, 312, 317, 320 mortality, 256, 394 mosaic, 159, 160, 173, 277 mosquitoes, 24 motives, 111 mouth, 148, 374, 376 movement, 31, 182, 185, 200, 376, 377, 383, 384, 386, 403 MSS, 77, 85, 86 multiple regression, 363, 367, 368, 371 multiple regression analyses, 363, 367, 368 multivariate, 202, 203, 360 multivariate statistics, 360 mutagenesis, 193 mutagenic, 54 MVA, vii, 7, 10, 12, 13, 14 N Na+, 50 NaCl, 148, 259 naphthalene, 57 NASA, 8, 9, 13, 89, 94, 95, 99, 103 nation, ix, 113, 114, 119, 120, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127 national, 75, 81, 99, 102, 103, 105, 110, 114, 115, 116, 118, 126, 127, 129, 134, 238 National Academy of Sciences, 128 National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 89 National Marine Fisheries Service, 116 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 75, 103, 117, 356 435 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), 75, 356 National Research Council, 19, 69, 74, 76, 79, 82, 83, 96, 100, 101, 103, 107, 119, 120, 122, 126, 131 native plant, 260 natural gas, 127 natural habitats, 134 natural resource management, viii, 73, 74, 77, 120 natural resources, 74, 101 Natural Resources Conservation Service, 78, 116, 117 Nebraska, 108, 109 necrosis, 298 negative relation, 369 neglect, 118 nematodes, 46 nervous system, 48 nesting, 19, 119 Netherlands, 71, 172, 174, 334, 354, 355, 398 network, 26, 91, 107, 129, 153, 175 neural network, 91, 101 neural networks, 91 New England, vii, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12 New Jersey, 66, 68 New South Wales, 245 New York, 69, 70, 78, 106, 107, 111, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 204, 207, 239, 242, 243, 262, 266, 267, 289, 291, 292, 353, 355, 356, 357, 370, 371, 405, 418 New York Times, 128, 129, 131, 132 New Zealand, 23, 101, 103, 290, 388, 395 newspapers, 123 Newton, 111 Ni, xii, 257, 295, 296, 297, 299, 301, 302, 303, 305, 306, 307, 308, 309, 311, 312, 314, 316, 317, 320, 321, 322 nickel, 48, 50, 51, 258, 321, 322 Nielsen, 67, 259, 266, 357 NIR, 8, 10, 11, 12 nitrate, 30, 31, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 220, 263, 264, 265, 311, 354, 356, 396, 400, 403 nitrates, 35, 168, 218, 355, 358 nitrification, 31, 36, 38, 40, 42, 44, 215, 216, 217, 220, 250, 256, 265, 335, 336, 337, 338, 339, 354, 355, 395, 396 nitrifying bacteria, 40 nitrite, 335, 336 nitrogen, x, xi, 4, 21, 28, 31, 33, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 42, 43, 44, 155, 163, 168, 213, 214, 218, 219, 220, 221, 223, 224, 225, 228, 232, 236, 241, 243, 244, 245, 247, 248, 251, 253, 254, 256, 262, 263, 436 Index 264, 266, 330, 331, 334, 335, 336, 342, 353, 357, 361, 363, 364, 392 nitrogen fixation, 36, 220 nitrogen gas, 31, 36, 44 nitrous oxide, 331 NOAA, 13, 77, 103, 107, 343, 356 noise, 99 non-infectious, 197 nonlinear, 273, 275, 277 normal, 11, 18, 39, 54, 100, 179, 378, 417 normal distribution, 378 North America, xiv, 407, 418 North Carolina, 125, 396 Norway, 238, 397 NPS, xiv, 391, 392, 393, 395, 396, 397, 398, 400, 403 NRC, 119, 120, 122, 126 nucleic acid, 42 nucleotides, 201 nucleus, 58 nutrient cycling, 39, 76, 101 nutrient flow, ix, 133, 134, 135, 166 nutrient transfer, 400 nutrients, ix, x, xi, xiii, xiv, 1, 17, 19, 20, 23, 27, 30, 31, 33, 35, 37, 38, 54, 57, 62, 65, 128, 133, 134, 135, 164, 165, 192, 213, 215, 216, 218, 219, 222, 223, 228, 229, 230, 232, 238, 244, 247, 249, 251, 252, 253, 257, 266, 267, 268, 296, 300, 307, 311, 312, 320, 325, 326, 327, 330, 334, 339, 345, 348, 350, 352, 354, 363, 367, 368, 369, 391, 392, 393, 395, 397, 402 nutrition, xi, 247, 248, 262, 263, 264, 321, 357 O obligate, 37, 48, 191 observations, xv, 11, 94, 104, 107, 110, 262, 293, 376, 383, 407, 408, 409, 413, 417 oceans, 406 odors, 26 oestrogen, 54 Ohio, 358 oil, 118, 127, 344 oils, Oklahoma, 106 omission, 76 on-line, 1, 2, 4, 9, 71, 76, 77, 78, 129, 130, 355, 388 open spaces, 24, 160 opportunity costs, 375 optical, viii, 73, 90, 91, 94, 96, 97, 98, 99, 101, 106, 111, 297, 410, 411, 412 optical microscopy, 297 optimization, 64, 196, 203 Oregon, 354 organic, vii, viii, x, 12, 15, 16, 19, 20, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 33, 34, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 50, 51, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 65, 101, 165, 177, 178, 181, 182, 207, 213, 215, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 222, 223, 224, 225, 227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 234, 237, 238, 243, 244, 249, 255, 257, 260, 263, 273, 326, 335, 338, 339, 352, 361, 392, 393, 395, 396, 397 organic C, 30 organic chemicals, 58, 392 organic compounds, vii, viii, 15, 16, 20, 29, 30, 31, 38, 39, 44, 53, 54, 55, 59, 60, 61, 222, 249, 339 organic matter, x, 19, 30, 31, 33, 34, 38, 39, 40, 50, 54, 56, 57, 62, 65, 165, 177, 178, 181, 207, 213, 215, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 222, 223, 224, 225, 227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, 234, 237, 238, 255, 273, 335, 338, 339, 352, 395, 397 organic solvent, 60, 61 organic solvents, 60, 61 organism, 39, 179, 180, 218 organization, 115 organizational culture, 115 organizations, viii, 73, 75 orientation, 92, 388 outliers, 10 oversight, 117, 122 ownership, 128 oxidation, x, 30, 32, 37, 38, 39, 40, 49, 50, 55, 59, 177, 187, 189, 203, 220, 231, 338, 339, 340 oxidative, 58, 59, 63 oxidative reaction, 59 oxide, 39, 178, 193, 209, 323, 332 oxides, 30, 43, 50, 51, 332, 395 oxygen, xiv, 4, 26, 33, 34, 38, 40, 48, 51, 57, 59, 185, 191, 194, 195, 198, 199, 210, 214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 219, 221, 222, 224, 249, 250, 256, 263, 327, 338, 342, 352, 353, 364, 365, 366, 391, 396 oxygenation, 20, 239, 353 oxyhydroxides, 50 ozonation, x, 177, 181 ozone, 181 P Pacific, 102, 374, 378, 379, 387, 398 PAHs, 53, 54, 59, 60, 249 paints, 48 pairing, 10, 402 paper, viii, 19, 33, 74, 75, 113, 114, 273, 274, 288, 291, 292, 293, 359, 418 parameter, 80, 142, 218, 235, 316, 320 parasite, 180, 209 Index parasites, 179, 184 parenchyma, 309 parental care, 389 Paris, 108, 169, 301, 307, 322 Parkinson, 198, 208 particles, 33, 34, 46, 49, 56, 179, 188, 190, 234, 326, 397 particulate matter, 29, 32, 42, 50, 55, 187, 188 partition, 56 partnerships, ix, 113, 126 passive, viii, 58, 73, 75, 82, 91, 92, 103, 109, 218, 272, 273 pastures, 159 patents, 259 pathogenic, 45, 46, 48, 179, 180, 184, 187, 190, 193, 205, 208, 209 pathogens, x, 17, 19, 21, 31, 33, 45, 46, 47, 177, 179, 180, 181, 184, 190, 192, 193, 194, 197, 202, 204, 206, 208, 243, 248 pathways, 22, 29, 35, 58, 61, 97, 99, 238, 256, 278, 283, 393 Pb, 168, 256, 297, 301, 302 PCA, 200, 363, 365, 366, 367, 368, 369 PCBs, 54, 59, 60, 61 PCR, 200, 201, 205, 210 peat, 19, 21, 39, 42, 43, 170, 182, 191, 193, 344 peatland, 18, 242 pedestrians, 153 Pennsylvania, 102, 119, 129, 209 peptides, 309 perception, 74, 376 performance, x, xi, 4, 24, 31, 34, 54, 126, 160, 178, 186, 188, 189, 190, 192, 195, 196, 198, 199, 201, 202, 206, 207, 218, 223, 232, 247, 248, 249, 252, 256, 259, 262, 267, 268, 332, 345, 352, 354, 356, 358 periodic, 23, 53 peripheral, 148 permeability, 182, 201 permeable membrane, 280 permit, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 121, 122 personal, 53, 77, 96, 99, 387 personal communication, 77, 96, 99 Perth, 247, 268 perturbation, 195 perturbations, 275 pesticide, xiv, 60, 146, 391, 393, 394, 395, 398, 399, 400, 402, 406 pesticides, vii, 1, 15, 48, 53, 54, 58, 59, 60, 63, 248, 392, 393, 395, 397, 398 pests, 24, 216, 250 petitioners, 116 petroleum, 59, 60, 206 437 petroleum, 60 pH, 20, 30, 37, 38, 39, 40, 43, 44, 45, 46, 50, 51, 55, 56, 57, 192, 204, 223, 224, 225, 226, 230, 231, 233, 235, 237, 253, 254, 255, 256, 261, 263, 264, 266, 267, 296, 320, 335, 337, 338, 339, 342, 353, 354, 361, 364, 365, 366, 369 pH values, 39, 40, 230, 255, 337, 339, 369 Phalaris arundinacea, 61, 252, 260, 263, 268 pharmaceutical, vii, 15, 62, 63, 64 pharmaceuticals, viii, 16, 53, 62, 63, 64, 65 phenol, 57 phenotypic, 296, 312 phenotypic plasticity, 296 Philadelphia, 204, 206, 207, 209 phloem, 256 Phoenix, 205 phosphate, 30, 43, 56, 393 phosphate, 330, 331, 332, 342 phosphates, 43, 168, 216, 218, 356 phospholipids, 42 phosphorous, 221, 243, 297 phosphorus, x, 4, 21, 33, 35, 42, 43, 44, 45, 213, 214, 218, 219, 220, 221, 223, 224, 228, 232, 241, 244, 248, 251, 264, 322, 323, 330, 331, 334, 342, 349, 355, 357, 361, 363, 364, 392, 401 photochemical, 252 photographs, viii, 14, 73, 75, 76, 78, 82, 83, 84, 85, 97, 108, 137, 284 photolysis, 29 photoperiod, 370 photosynthesis, xiii, 39, 44, 45, 217, 240, 256, 259, 267, 306, 326, 327, 338, 344, 349, 350 photosynthetic, 25, 32, 33, 40, 44, 48, 108, 215, 216, 239, 252, 257, 327, 344, 345, 350, 357 Phragmites australis, 25, 48, 52, 60, 61, 136, 183, 193, 195, 198, 204, 208, 216, 234, 238, 241, 242, 244, 252, 255, 256, 257, 258, 262, 263, 264, 268, 352 phylogenetic, 201 physical factors, 368 physical force, 369 physico-chemical, 20, 39, 62, 296, 332 physico-chemical characteristics, 57, 225 physico-chemical properties, 56 physiological, 59, 148, 200, 205, 252, 257, 259, 264, 322, 348 physiology, 12, 80 phytoplankton, xiii, 163, 166, 216, 359, 360, 364, 365, 366, 367, 368, 369 phytoremediation, 52, 59, 267, 344, 345, 352 phytotoxicity, 263, 300, 321 pigments, 257 plague, 116 438 Index plankton, 164, 233, 360, 368, 369 planning, 14, 96, 99, 104 plaque, 204 plaques, 51 plastic, 148, 224, 296, 312, 320 plasticity, 281, 311, 320, 323 platforms, 82 play, vii, xi, xiii, 15, 20, 28, 30, 49, 50, 52, 55, 57, 65, 165, 191, 192, 193, 198, 204, 213, 215, 221, 222, 239, 247, 257, 258, 259, 263, 332, 352, 359, 400, 414 poisonous, 215 polarity, 56 polarization, 13, 92, 93, 95, 96, 99 policymakers, 127 polio, 179 poliovirus, 179 political, ix, 113, 114, 118, 119, 123, 128 politics, 115, 120 pollutant, vii, xi, xiv, 1, 4, 15, 16, 21, 24, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 58, 65, 204, 210, 215, 216, 218, 248, 250, 254, 256, 258, 259, 260, 261, 296, 391, 392, 393, 396, 398 pollutants, xi, xiv, 1, 4, 16, 17, 19, 20, 21, 24, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 34, 35, 53, 54, 57, 58, 59, 62, 63, 64, 65, 125, 215, 216, 218, 247, 248, 249, 250, 263, 296, 326, 334, 335, 344, 391, 392, 393, 395, 397, 398, 403 pollution, xiv, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 19, 21, 23, 27, 33, 35, 62, 69, 71, 77, 79, 101, 114, 129, 134, 209, 237, 239, 240, 241, 242, 243, 264, 267, 321, 340, 343, 345, 370, 391, 392, 395, 397, 398, 404, 405, 406 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), 53, 57, 59 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon, 53, 59, 208, 249 polymer, 178, 182, 192 polymerase, 200, 207 polymerase chain reaction, 200, 207 polypeptides, 255 polyphosphates, 42, 361 pond, 2, 3, 4, 5, 33, 209, 224, 242, 243, 244, 266, 298, 329, 354, 360, 361, 363, 366, 368, 411 pools, 81, 97, 99, 119, 263 poor, 35, 90, 121, 166, 259 population, xiii, 28, 32, 38, 54, 59, 122, 124, 125, 127, 153, 155, 159, 161, 162, 174, 180, 191, 192, 198, 199, 325, 373, 374, 409, 414 population density, 161 population growth, 127 pore, 218, 256 pores, 218 porosity, 185, 195 porous, 26, 190, 192, 209, 220, 238, 328 porous media, 190, 192, 209, 220, 238, 328 ports, 197 Portugal, 15, 370 positive correlation, 142, 220 positive feedback, 274, 282 positive relation, 368, 369 positive relationship, 368, 369 potassium, 321, 339 potato, 25, 204 Potomac River, 293 power, 3, 123, 150, 276, 363 praxis, 244 precipitation, 11, 12, 19, 29, 30, 31, 32, 42, 43, 44, 45, 49, 50, 51, 55, 80, 87, 186, 220, 221, 311, 332, 395, 397, 400, 410 predators, 54, 375, 376 prediction, 289, 375 predictive model, 192, 207 predictive models, 192 predictor variables, 154 predictors, 366 preference, xi, 247, 250, 253, 292 presidency, 118 President Bush, 114, 120, 125, 127 President Clinton, 120 presidential veto, 114 prevention, 129, 218, 352, 403 prices, 125 Principal Components Analysis, pristine, 357, 397 private, 75, 116 probability, 31, 76, 276, 414 probable cause, 127 producers, 117, 242 production, x, xiv, 16, 19, 22, 24, 37, 44, 51, 76, 77, 127, 163, 213, 217, 221, 223, 229, 230, 232, 237, 241, 243, 250, 254, 255, 256, 258, 262, 265, 266, 278, 300, 322, 326, 335, 337, 338, 345, 347, 356, 370, 371, 391, 395, 397, 398, 403, 409 productivity, xi, 35, 38, 101, 155, 163, 228, 247, 252, 320, 344, 350, 352, 392, 409, 414 profit, 397 profit margin, 397 program, viii, ix, 73, 78, 83, 90, 99, 103, 113, 114, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 125, 126 progressive, xi, xii, 271, 272, 282, 286 prokaryotic, 179 proliferation, 164 promote, 28, 29, 33, 51, 122, 164, 198, 228, 385 propagation, 202, 216, 250 property, 93, 118, 121, 125, 126 property owner, 118, 126 property rights, 121 protected area, 21, 134, 160, 167, 170 Index protected areas, 21, 167, 170 protection, viii, ix, 16, 27, 74, 76, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 123, 125, 128, 134, 161, 167, 273, 352, 385 protein, 255, 266 proteins, 255, 257, 345 protocols, 83, 125 prototype, 356 protozoa, 179, 180, 181, 190, 191, 192, 193, 205, 215, 234, 239, 243 pseudo, 63 Pseudomonas, 39, 46, 192, 351, 355 public, xiii, 24, 26, 35, 45, 46, 48, 53, 74, 78, 101, 114, 116, 118, 120, 121, 122, 123, 126, 128, 168, 211, 265, 325, 345, 381, 385, 397 public health, xiii, 35, 45, 46, 48, 53, 211, 325 public interest, 114 public opinion, 122 public policy, 78 public support, 168 Public Works Committee, 118 public works projects, 121 publishers, 244 pulse, 96, 97, 291 pulses, 97, 98 pumping, 127 pure water, 97 purification, viii, xi, 16, 17, 209, 214, 247, 248, 250, 253, 259, 261 PVC, 225, 298, 361 Q qualifications, 121 qualitative concept, 284 quality improvement, 217 quantization, 103 R race, 384 radar, viii, 73, 75, 82, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 111, 172 radiation, x, 39, 91, 177, 186, 191, 193, 194, 206 radio, 92, 387 radionuclides, 248 rain, 91, 93 rainfall, 3, 4, 16, 29, 80, 135, 327, 361, 393, 394, 395, 402, 410 rainwater, 2, 3, 4, 225 random, 137, 203 439 range, 17, 22, 29, 37, 38, 43, 44, 49, 53, 54, 60, 63, 91, 97, 169, 179, 180, 186, 192, 193, 217, 222, 233, 234, 235, 236, 248, 254, 255, 257, 259, 275, 283, 284, 335, 337, 339, 347, 348, 350, 374, 377, 378, 382, 393, 396, 408, 409 rangeland, 291 reading, 377 real time, 417 realism, 361 reality, 101 reasoning, 84 recalling, 122 reception, 92 reciprocal interactions, 273, 280, 287 reclamation, 16, 19, 167 recognition, 65, 74, 330 recovery, 54, 160, 164, 205, 275, 344, 363, 370, 392, 401 recreation, 16, 19, 374, 389 recreational, xiii, 24, 35, 216, 326, 373, 374, 375, 384, 385, 386, 387, 392 recycling, 24, 54, 223, 266 redox, 20, 29, 30, 37, 38, 40, 46, 50, 51, 55, 56, 63, 200, 217, 223, 255, 266, 339, 353 reduction, xiv, 27, 31, 32, 36, 38, 39, 44, 55, 62, 79, 101, 123, 137, 140, 143, 144, 166, 167, 191, 194, 220, 228, 237, 256, 258, 259, 301, 306, 331, 335, 339, 340, 346, 354, 358, 385, 391, 393, 394, 395, 397, 398, 400, 402, 403 reed beds, 204, 205, 218, 239, 352, 353 refining, 273, 277, 284 reflection, 89, 93 reforms, 119 refractory, 44 refuge, 388, 398 regeneration, 276, 368, 369 regional, vii, viii, xii, 73, 75, 77, 78, 85, 90, 92, 95, 103, 104, 105, 118, 120, 121, 126, 128, 169, 272, 284, 288, 340, 387, 398, 414, 417 regionalism, 126 regression, 10, 141, 145, 166, 185, 283, 286, 330, 332, 363, 366 regression analysis, 145 regressions, 362 regular, 86, 298 regulation, viii, xiii, 73, 116, 287, 288, 359, 360, 368, 369, 370 regulations, 18, 74, 115, 118 regulators, 77, 121, 126, 244, 312, 345, 360 rehabilitate, 123 rehabilitation, 208, 357 reinforcement, 272, 288 440 Index relationship, 7, 10, 97, 145, 146, 148, 162, 163, 164, 166, 169, 172, 180, 236, 254, 257, 260, 305, 330, 350, 368, 369, 374, 396 relationships, ix, 133, 157, 168, 171, 173, 184, 280, 281, 282, 321, 363, 367, 409 reliability, viii, 73, 75, 76, 77, 123, 196 remediation, 326 remote sensing, vii, viii, ix, xii, 7, 12, 14, 73, 75, 92, 96, 100, 101, 102, 103, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 133, 136, 272, 288, 408, 409 replication, 195, 196, 200 reproduction, xiv, 54, 215, 373 reptiles, 22, 54 Republican, 123 Republicans, 120 research, xi, xiv, 2, 22, 23, 57, 64, 65, 82, 91, 94, 98, 105, 168, 187, 189, 195, 196, 202, 203, 214, 240, 261, 263, 266, 288, 344, 352, 369, 370, 375, 388, 391, 393, 395, 398, 401 research and development, 65, 71, 106 researchers, 82, 86, 98, 99, 153, 154, 219 reserves, xiv, 373 reservoir, 171 reservoirs, 1, 21, 128 residential, xiii, 162, 209, 373 residuals, 181 residues, vii, viii, 15, 16, 62, 63, 64 resilience, 275, 280, 284, 370 resistance, 29, 63, 275, 280, 284 resistive, 275 resolution, viii, 73, 77, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 89, 90, 92, 93, 94, 95, 97, 98, 99, 100, 105, 108, 110, 128, 285 resource allocation, 251, 261, 268, 269 resource availability, 374 resources, 4, 22, 75, 100, 103, 107, 114, 115, 127, 170, 172, 199, 252, 260, 367, 368, 369 respiration, 44, 45, 217, 238, 339, 350 respiratory, 39 response time, 195 response-time, 196 responsibilities, 116 restoration, viii, xiii, xiv, xv, 4, 17, 64, 73, 117, 120, 122, 125, 126, 127, 128, 135, 173, 174, 273, 288, 290, 292, 293, 358, 359, 407 restriction enzyme, 201 restriction fragment length polymorphis, 207, 208 retardation, 403 retention, x, 4, 22, 30, 37, 39, 48, 49, 50, 51, 55, 57, 76, 123, 168, 177, 178, 184, 187, 189, 192, 203, 205, 220, 224, 240, 243, 296, 330, 331, 332, 335, 338, 339, 342, 346, 357, 392, 394, 396, 397, 402, 403, 405 returns, 36, 96, 97, 409 RFLP, 208 Rhizobium, 351 rhizome, 25, 217, 256 rhizosphere, 20, 34, 35, 46, 48, 58, 59, 191, 192, 194, 198, 205, 210, 218, 219, 221, 248, 253, 256, 263, 265, 268, 338, 339, 352, 353, 354, 357 ribosomal RNA, 200, 201 rice, 16, 19, 25, 253, 262, 265, 266, 268, 350, 352, 402 riparian, 1, 18, 101, 102, 104, 136, 244, 272, 273, 274, 275, 276, 277, 278, 279, 280, 287, 288, 290, 291, 292, 293, 357 risk, 26, 27, 46, 216, 250, 376, 403, 417 risks, 216 river systems, 273, 276, 277, 287, 288, 292 rivers, xii, xiv, 16, 19, 35, 46, 239, 242, 272, 276, 287, 289, 291, 391, 392 RNA, 200 rocky, 374 roosting, 374, 375, 376, 380, 382, 383, 384, 385, 386, 388, 389 rotifer, 365 rotifers, 366 roughness, 93, 272, 275, 280 routing, xiv, 391 Royal Society, 263 runoff, 1, 2, 3, 4, 16, 19, 54, 60, 123, 128, 168, 208, 209, 214, 248, 354, 393, 394, 395, 397, 398, 399, 400, 402, 403 rural, 5, 35, 214, 240, 322, 340, 358 rural areas, 5, 214, 240 rust, 354 S safety, 344 saline, 148, 150, 258, 259, 265, 344, 353 salinity, 46, 76, 147, 148, 150, 163, 175, 258, 259, 263, 264, 265, 266, 268, 397 salinity gradient, 175 salmon, salmonella, 179, 190, 193, 194, 206 salt, 17, 18, 91, 105, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 148, 152, 153, 154, 157, 158, 159, 160, 162, 166, 167, 168, 175, 253, 258, 259, 267, 268, 370 salts, xi, 247, 249, 258, 259, 261 saltwater, 10 sample, 34, 40, 46, 96, 137, 200, 201, 225, 378, 385, 395 Index sampling, 137, 147, 148, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 197, 200, 225, 226, 231, 232, 284, 340, 362, 363, 364, 377, 402 sand, x, 3, 19, 25, 43, 56, 57, 134, 177, 181, 182, 191, 193, 198, 201, 209, 210, 260, 332, 356, 380, 382, 383, 385, 410 sandstones, 344 sanitation, 238, 357 SAR, 88, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 108, 110, 111, 172 satellite, viii, xv, 14, 74, 77, 78, 82, 83, 85, 86, 87, 89, 90, 92, 94, 100, 101, 103, 104, 107, 108, 109, 407, 410, 417 satellite imagery, 77, 82, 100, 103, 104, 107, 109 satellite orbits, 85 satellite-borne, 109 saturation, vii, 19, 79, 80, 96, 194, 361, 364, 397, 402, 408 scaffold, xiv, 407 scarcity, 248, 308 scattering, 94 schema, 130, 132 school, 384 science, vii, 15, 120, 122, 126, 128, 293, 404 scientific, 17, 18, 62, 119, 127, 134, 160, 168, 186, 282, 393 scientific community, 62 scientific knowledge, 282 scientific understanding, 17 scientists, 18, 75, 76, 77, 101, 128, 210, 252, 262, 345, 397 scores, 167 scrublands, 361 seabirds, 374, 385, 386, 387, 389 search, 266 searches, 155 searching, 153 seasonal variations, 100, 191, 243 seasonality, 365, 366, 369, 401 Seattle, 103 secondary sexual characteristics, 54 secretion, 198 sediment, xii, 1, 2, 3, 29, 44, 50, 54, 76, 88, 126, 170, 190, 216, 223, 236, 237, 257, 258, 266, 272, 273, 274, 275, 276, 278, 279, 280, 281, 282, 283, 284, 290, 292, 296, 392, 393, 394, 395, 396, 397, 398 sedimentation, x, 16, 19, 29, 31, 33, 34, 35, 42, 43, 46, 49, 50, 55, 126, 177, 187, 189, 190, 203, 216, 217, 218, 221, 236, 276, 289, 291, 326, 392, 395, 402, 403 sediments, 49, 50, 51, 190, 217, 243, 249, 257, 258, 266, 327, 330, 370, 392, 395, 397, 401 441 seed, 278, 281 seedlings, xii, 272, 276, 278, 281, 283, 357 selecting, 64, 261, 330, 332, 333 selenium, 51, 257, 268 self, 88 semi-arid, 8, 172, 175, 397 Senate, 115, 118, 123 senescence, 43, 248, 300, 302, 320, 622, 402 sensing, 104, 105, 106, 109, 136, 172, 409 sensitivity, xiv, 8, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 276, 289, 407 sensors, 75, 79, 83, 85, 86, 87, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 99, 103, 106, 137, 409, 410 separation, vii, septic tank, 187, 208, 224, 250, 268 series, 18, 29, 39, 46, 134, 153, 154, 184, 346, 348, 349, 394, 396, 408, 409, 412 services, viii, xiv, 19, 65, 73, 74, 95, 99, 100, 101, 112, 114, 127, 407, 414 sewage, xii, 23, 40, 163, 214, 241, 244, 245, 295, 296, 298, 311, 312, 322, 354, 358 sex, 54 sex hormones, 54 shade, 347 shape, 76, 101 shaping, 272, 274, 277 sharing, 386 shellfish, 19 shigella, 194 shoot, 263, 305, 349 shorebirds, 373, 374, 376, 380, 383, 384, 385, 386, 387, 388, 389 shores, xiii, 373 shortage, 340 short-term, 30, 42, 44, 50, 55, 252, 354, 408 shrubs, xii, 21, 272, 278, 281 Siberia, 357, 384 sibling, 174 sigmoid, 145 sign, 157, 378 signals, 98, 312 significance level, 157 signs, 82, 90, 125, 180, 302, 385 silicate, 56 silver, 3, 378 similarity, 20, 384 simple linear regression, 154 simulation, 100, 211, 290, 399 singular, 150, 167 SIR, 94, 95, 104, 108 sites, vii, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 16, 18, 20, 38, 43, 44, 50, 51, 56, 64, 101, 115, 121, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 162, 234, 238, 276, 300, 301, 310, 311, 442 Index 332, 374, 376, 377, 380, 382, 383, 385, 389, 397, 417 slag, 3, 45 sludge, x, 24, 63, 177, 181, 207, 228, 322 social, 114, 123 social change, 114 society, 74, 79, 405, 406 sodium, xi, 247, 259 software, 77, 80, 94, 98, 363 soil erosion, 216 soil organic C, 344 soils, vii, xiv, 17, 18, 20, 23, 28, 29, 31, 43, 50, 57, 58, 78, 79, 82, 89, 100, 102, 108, 118, 148, 159, 168, 204, 208, 238, 242, 255, 328, 335, 336, 339, 353, 354, 355, 356, 391, 397, 402, 403 solar, 8, 10, 12, 19, 39, 85, 93, 186, 191, 193, 194 solar energy, 19 solid matrix, 57, 59 solid phase, 48 solid waste, 120 solubility, 30, 50, 55, 56, 57, 58, 338, 339 solutions, 62, 257, 353, 365, 397 solvents, 58, 60 sorghum, 267 sorption, 19, 20, 29, 30, 50, 51, 56, 57, 220, 308, 316, 320, 332, 335 sorption process, 30, 56, 57 South Africa, 394, 397, 406 South America, 260 South Carolina, 88 South Dakota, 418 soybean, 266, 396 SPA, 161, 162, 167 space-time, 277 Spain, ix, 133, 134, 144, 148, 162, 167, 168, 170, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 213, 224, 234, 238, 242, 334, 357, 359, 361 spatial, viii, xi, xiv, 74, 77, 80, 81, 82, 83, 85, 86, 87, 89, 90, 92, 94, 95, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 103, 106, 108, 136, 142, 166, 201, 253, 271, 273, 275, 277, 278, 279, 280, 281, 284, 286, 287, 360, 376, 386, 391, 407, 408, 409, 416 spatiotemporal, xii, 272, 276, 277, 284, 417 spawning, 19 special interests, 115 specialists, 18, 156 speciation, 50, 266, 267 species richness, 154, 155, 160, 258, 292 specific adsorption, 50 specific surface, 185, 193 specificity, 154, 200, 205 spectral analysis, 88, 106 spectral signatures, 89, 91, 98 spectrum, 85, 86, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 97 speed, 92, 120, 153 speed of light, 92 sperm, 54 spheres, 178, 192, 197 spinach, 321 sponsor, 115 spore, 179, 181, 190 sprouting, 276 SPSS, 363 SRS, 406 stability, 24, 164, 195, 200, 273, 274, 275, 278, 286, 287, 293, 360 stabilization, 76, 221, 224, 284, 402 stabilize, 194, 195, 280 stable states, 371 staffing, 117 stages, xii, 33, 46, 81, 154, 159, 238, 272, 278, 281, 309, 346, 348, 349, 408, 414 standard deviation, 214, 300, 301, 306, 314, 412 standard error, 229, 362, 364 standards, 23, 79, 406 State Department, 78, 107 State of the Union address, 120 statistical analysis, 195, 196, 202, 203 statistics, 10, 285 statutes, 118 steel, stele, xii, 295, 297, 309, 310, 311, 312, 313, 315, 317, 319, 320 steroids, 63 stimuli, 388 stochastic, 88, 206 stock, 38 storage, 1, 2, 3, 29, 30, 38, 42, 43, 44, 52, 76, 95, 101, 216, 223, 242, 250, 309, 326, 344, 353, 354, 392 stormwater, 1, 5, 23, 128, 204, 209, 248 strains, 355 strategic, 376 strategies, 134, 155, 261, 273, 284, 287, 288, 371, 402 stratification, 188 streams, vii, 1, 15, 16, 19, 34, 35, 101, 120, 284, 288, 290, 291, 293, 371, 402 strength, 48, 97, 192, 272, 288 streptococci, 46, 47, 222 stress, vii, 7, 8, 10, 82, 89, 91, 101, 248, 253, 255, 257, 261, 265, 266, 267, 360, 369, 370, 392, 403 stressors, 417 structural changes, 156 structuring, 282, 283, 285, 291, 360, 366, 371 subjective, 74, 84 Index substances, xi, 34, 53, 54, 57, 59, 61, 63, 64, 178, 192, 215, 218, 219, 221, 222, 232, 238, 247, 248, 249, 251, 261, 345 substrates, 20, 22, 29, 43, 58, 65, 218, 248, 250, 258, 275, 393 subsurface flow, 25, 27, 182, 183, 205, 207, 209, 210, 214, 222, 224, 238, 239, 241, 242, 243, 250, 328, 329, 334, 352, 356, 357 subtraction, 102 suburban, 110, 125, 374 sugar, 128 sugars, 42, 59 sulfate, 51, 266, 358 sulfur, 340 sulphate, xi, 247, 255, 256 sulphur, xi, 247, 255, 256, 261, 309 summaries, 77 summer, x, 35, 127, 137, 147, 153, 154, 155, 156, 158, 159, 160, 161, 165, 167, 190, 191, 213, 219, 220, 221, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226, 227, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 234, 236, 237, 366, 369, 376, 396, 403, 411, 412, 413, 414 sunflower, 344, 357 sunlight, 55, 194, 228, 327 supplemental, 251 supplements, xiii, 325 supply, 16, 20, 35, 59, 127, 128, 217, 229, 237, 251, 255, 264, 268, 282, 300, 311, 323, 335, 338 suppression, 260, 305, 368 Supreme Court, 114, 116, 120, 121, 123, 129, 131, 132 surface area, 26, 43, 46, 56, 134, 153, 194, 215, 249, 327, 338 surface layer, 25 surface roughness, 91, 107 surface water, xiv, 1, 29, 30, 76, 101, 111, 116, 180, 182, 183, 208, 214, 257, 336, 343, 363, 369, 391, 392, 398, 400, 402 surfactant, 178, 193, 209 surfactants, 59, 60 surplus, 217 surprise, 61, 63, 376 surrogates, 366 surveillance, 167 survival, xiv, 54, 190, 250, 305, 373, 374 sustainability, 405, 406 sustainable tourism, 385 swamps, 18, 122 Switzerland, 69, 351 symbiosis, 179, 253 symptom, 257 symptoms, 167, 254, 259 syndrome, 254, 266 443 synergistic, 96, 191, 201, 202, 203, 360 synergistic effect, 202, 203, 360 synthesis, 37, 142, 143, 146, 152, 193, 198, 293, 301, 303, 312, 320 synthetic, viii, 53, 63, 74, 91, 92, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 211, 239, 268 systematic, 21, 115, 187 T taiga, 354 Taiwan, 396 tanks, 4, 5, 187, 216, 218, 219, 220, 221, 222, 224, 225, 230, 231, 233 targets, 53, 64, 160 task force, 119 taxes, 122 taxonomic, 152, 166, 360, 366, 369 taxonomy, 211 TCE, 59, 60 technology, vii, 15, 27, 65, 76, 92, 96, 181, 184, 187, 188, 193, 248, 258, 344, 345, 354, 393 television, 91 temperate zone, 273, 283, 292 temperature, x, 35, 37, 38, 39, 40, 42, 43, 46, 56, 80, 91, 135, 177, 184, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191, 203, 207, 219, 223, 224, 225, 230, 232, 233, 234, 235, 237, 238, 253, 254, 262, 264, 327, 335, 339, 350, 361, 365, 366, 367, 369, 370, 396 temperature gradient, 366 temporal, viii, xi, xiv, 74, 85, 86, 88, 93, 95, 96, 100, 106, 136, 153, 164, 166, 171, 240, 253, 271, 273, 275, 277, 281, 286, 287, 360, 363, 376, 391, 392, 402, 407 temporal distribution, 253, 376 Tennessee, 109, 128, 405 Tennessee Valley Authority, 128 teratogenic, 54 terraces, 281, 286 textile, 33, 60 The Economist, 130 theoretical, 193, 224, 237, 273, 274, 277, 280, 283, 287 theory, 109, 122, 196, 276, 277, 286, 291, 292, 360 thermal, 27, 85, 89, 209, 232, 243 thermal analysis, 209, 243 threat, 63, 122, 167, 374, 385, 402 threatened, ix, 79, 116, 133, 369, 384, 386 threatening, ix, 133 threats, 53, 125, 387 three-dimensional, 278 threshold, 98, 141, 161, 275, 276, 288 threshold level, 98 444 Index thresholds, xii, 272, 275, 276, 286, 287, 289, 292 tides, 80, 100, 376, 378, 379, 380, 383, 384 timber, 19, 386 time consuming, 84, 200 time frame, 12 time periods, 99, 186, 188, 279 time series, 410 timing, 80, 83, 231, 275, 408 tissue, 25, 30, 38, 43, 49, 52, 216, 217, 251, 252, 297, 302, 308, 309, 332 title, 382 TOC, 178, 214, 225, 228 tolerance, 59, 64, 146, 148, 240, 249, 254, 256, 257, 258, 259, 261, 262, 264, 265, 296, 298, 301, 303, 305, 307, 309, 320, 321, 322, 323, 345 toluene, 58 top-down, 164, 166, 369 topographic, 12, 76, 79, 97, 110, 279 topology, 277 total organic carbon (TOC), 178, 214,224 total petroleum hydrocarbons, 59 toughness, 236 tourism, xiii, 162, 373, 374, 385 tourist, ix, 5, 133, 135, 374 toxic, xi, xii, 16, 21, 24, 30, 38, 48, 57, 59, 62, 64, 247, 248, 254, 255, 256, 257, 259, 261, 267, 295, 301, 303, 307, 312, 320, 322, 369, 392 toxic effect, xii, 62, 64, 254, 256, 257, 261, 267, 296, 301, 312, 320, 322 toxic metals, 30 toxic substances, 57 toxicities, 249, 258, 261 toxicity, xi, 28, 35, 48, 53, 59, 63, 247, 248, 249, 254, 255, 256, 257, 258, 263, 264, 266, 267, 268, 298, 300, 302, 305, 313, 316, 369, 392, 393, 394 toxicological, 352, 399 toxins, 261 tracers, 196, 197, 202 tracking, 125, 137, 417 trade, 87, 120, 129 trade-off, 87, 120, 129 traditional views, 369 training, 16, 19, 77 traits, 38 trajectory, xii, 272, 273, 274, 283 transfer, 35, 50, 135, 198, 238, 326, 338, 339, 353 transference, 402 transformation, xiv, 30, 31, 35, 36, 40, 42, 59, 88, 96, 192, 268, 279, 326, 391 transformations, 20, 28, 29, 37, 43, 49, 88, 100, 202, 203, 210, 216, 250, 275, 339, 353, 357, 402, 403 transgression, 275 transition, xii, 18, 88, 272, 280, 283, 284, 285, 286 transitions, 279 translocation, 43, 49, 52, 307 transparency, 361, 365 transpiration, 55, 58, 80, 195, 349, 350 transport, 1, 3, 48, 58, 218, 238, 267, 272, 307, 309, 311, 312, 320, 386 traps, ix, 29, 133, 147, 148, 152 travel, 92, 373, 383, 384, 392, 394 treatment methods, 27, 179, 181 tree-based, 101 trees, xii, 21, 81, 86, 88, 91, 104, 112, 272, 274, 276, 278, 281, 348, 350 trend, 54, 160, 162, 166, 197 tribal, 118, 126 trichloroethylene, 59 triggers, 121 trout, 264, 357 tubers, 259 tubular, 218 Tukey HSD, 225, 226, 231 tundra, vii, 241 turbulence, 233 turbulent, 217 Turkey, 334 turnover, 35, 44, 170, 360 two-way, 281 typology, 136, 287, 289 U U.S Department of Agriculture (USDA), 16, 17, 19, 21, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 71, 73, 78, 124, 326, 405, 406 U.S Geological Survey, 108, 112, 418 ubiquitous, 54, 397, 398 Uganda, 242, 334, 355, 356 ultraviolet, 206 uncertainty, 121 UNEP, 21, 68 UNESCO, 18, 71, 405 uniform, 116, 237, 298 United Kingdom (UK), 66, 67, 69, 71, 174, 204, 206, 218, 239, 240, 241, 242, 244, 271, 288, 354, 355, 383, 389, 398 United States, viii, ix, 13, 23, 27, 73, 74, 75, 77, 78, 97, 102, 107, 108, 110, 113, 114, 115, 116, 120, 121, 124, 127, 130, 211, 291, 292, 293, 387, 418 updating, 78 UPS, 271 uranium, 52 urban, 1, 2, 4, 5, 19, 22, 23, 33, 35, 125, 127, 137, 142, 163, 167, 168, 204, 209, 238, 248, 297, 321, 323, 352, 374, 386 Index urban areas, 1, 4, 33, 35, 127 urban settlement, 137 urbanization, 48, 340, 374 urea, 200 URL, 388, 389 US Army Corps of Engineers, 106 US Department of Commerce, 103 USEPA, 16, 17, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 71, 392, 398, 406 users, 34, 115 UV, x, 32, 46, 177, 178, 181, 187, 189, 193, 194, 198, 203 UV irradiation, 32 UV light, 194 UV radiation, x, 46, 177, 187, 189, 203 V vacuum, 123 Valencia, 162, 171 validation, 207, 287 validity, 202 values, viii, ix, xii, xiii, 10, 11, 13, 19, 22, 32, 37, 39, 40, 53, 61, 73, 74, 104, 111, 114, 125, 133, 141, 142, 144, 148, 153, 154, 155, 159, 160, 162, 185, 195, 222, 226, 227, 228, 230, 234, 236, 249, 277, 295, 326, 330, 332, 334, 335, 337, 339, 363, 378, 386 vapor, 55 variability, xi, 21, 102, 187, 210, 223, 248, 252, 262, 278, 290, 360, 363, 366, 368, 395, 400, 408, 409, 417 variable, 30, 56, 87, 159, 187, 201, 202, 221, 227, 253, 255, 267, 335, 352, 388, 396, 409, 418 variables, x, xi, 142, 145, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 160, 164, 165, 177, 184, 185, 186, 187, 189, 195, 196, 201, 202, 203, 210, 213, 216, 226, 231, 272, 277, 278, 279, 283, 284, 315, 320, 360, 362, 363, 364, 365, 366, 408, 410 variance, 332, 363, 366 variation, 34, 46, 53, 135, 153, 154, 155, 156, 159, 163, 191, 195, 228, 236, 265, 297, 332, 333, 351, 409 vascular, 238, 259, 262 vascular system, 262 vector, 103 vegetative state, 80 vehicles, xiii, 153, 373, 381, 384 velocity, 29, 39, 49, 185, 216, 272, 309, 316, 326 Venezuela, 288 vermiculite, 3, 45 Vermont, 7, 14, 400 445 vessels, xii, 295, 296, 297, 309, 311, 312, 313, 314, 315, 316, 317, 318, 319, 320 veterinary medicine, 62 victims, 118 village, 23, 224 viral, 179, 181, 198 Virginia, 102, 105, 107, 108, 110, 290 virus, 179 viruses, 45, 46, 179, 180, 181, 191, 194, 197, 204, 205, 209 visible, 85, 89, 92, 93, 97, 111, 118, 249 vision, 84, 128 visual, 155, 346 visualization, 201 vitamins, 59 volatility, 56 volatilization, 29, 31, 36, 39, 42, 55, 58, 220, 257, 335, 395 W walking, xiii, 373, 377 Warsaw, 174 Washington, 13, 69, 71, 102, 103, 107, 110, 111, 117, 118, 123, 124, 129, 130, 131, 132, 243, 289, 290, 370, 404, 406, 418 Washington Post, 129, 130, 131 waste, 34, 53, 114, 181, 182, 184, 205, 206, 243, 298, 320, 358, 396 waste management, 243 waste treatment, 205, 396 waste water, 206, 320 wastes, 33, 168 wastewater treatment, vii, viii, x, 15, 16, 17, 21, 22, 23, 28, 32, 33, 36, 54, 57, 60, 62, 64, 65, 71, 114, 177, 182, 204, 208, 209, 210, 211, 215, 217, 218, 220, 221, 238, 239, 240, 241, 242, 243, 244, 248, 249, 250, 251, 252, 253, 261, 264, 265, 266, 267, 268, 321, 322, 326, 328, 345, 354, 355, 356, 357, 358, 392, 393 wastewaters, vii, x, xi, 15, 21, 22, 23, 24, 26, 28, 35, 36, 40, 42, 45, 53, 62, 64, 65, 177, 184, 202, 205, 208, 209, 210, 211, 219, 243, 244, 247, 248, 252, 258, 267, 328, 354, 396 water absorption, 85, 97 water quality, vii, viii, 4, 15, 16, 19, 20, 22, 24, 65, 73, 77, 99, 114, 125, 179, 182, 187, 205, 223, 225, 241, 242, 248, 322, 340, 342, 353, 355, 356, 363, 370, 392, 397, 401, 402, 414, 417 water resources, ix, xiii, 103, 113, 114, 121, 248, 325, 341, 405, 406 water table, 18, 80, 91, 144, 146, 147, 403 446 Index waterfowl, xiv, 116, 119, 169, 174, 407, 408, 414, 417 watershed, viii, ix, x, 4, 73, 106, 110, 120, 126, 133, 134, 135, 136, 144, 145, 146, 148, 154, 156, 166, 167, 169, 172, 175, 400, 408, 409, 410, 414 watersheds, 110, 398, 406, 408, 417 waterways, 115, 120, 395, 398 wavelengths, vii, 7, 8, 84, 90, 92, 93, 95, 96 web, 165, 172, 360, 368, 404 websites, 86, 95 weight loss, 180, 231, 233, 242 weight ratio, 224 wells, 200 West Africa, 356 Westinghouse, 67 wet, 17, 18, 79, 119, 194 wetland restoration, 4, 117, 122, 128, 356, 358 wetting, 327 wheat, 266 White House, 118, 119, 120, 127, 132 White House Office, 119, 132 wildlife, 17, 19, 24, 27, 64, 114, 249, 326, 374, 388, 408, 410 wind, 24, 39, 80, 216, 217, 327 winter, x, 35, 60, 137, 153, 154, 155, 156, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 165, 167, 188, 190, 191, 194, 213, 216, 218, 219, 220, 221, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226, 227, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 234, 236, 237, 300, 354, 361, 369, 378, 384, 387, 396, 403 Wisconsin, 78, 102, 105, 262 wisdom, 121 wood, 273, 290, 350 wood density, 350 World Health Organization (WHO), 325, 358 World Resources Institute (WRI), 343, 358 worms, 45, 234 writing, 129 Wyoming, 288 X X-axis, 229 xenobiotic, vii, viii, 15, 16, 20, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 60, 61 xenobiotic degradation, 57 xenobiotics, 28, 32, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65 X-ray, 297 xylem, 256, 321 xylene, 58 Y yellow fever, 114 Yellowstone National Park, 105, 112 yield, 164, 261, 265, 349 Z Zea mays, 262 zinc, 48, 50, 51, 52, 255, 256, 322 Zinc, 53, 321 Zn, xii, 52, 168, 256, 257, 258, 295, 296, 297, 299, 300, 301, 303, 306, 307, 308, 309, 312, 314, 317, 321, 322 zooplankton, xiii, 46, 259, 266, 359, 360, 361, 366, 368, 370 [...]... decomposition has important consequences on constructed wetlands because it is related to the autochthonous production of organic matter, clogging rates in surface-flow wetlands, and terrestrialization in free-water surface wetlands The effect of harvest was studied in two free-water surface-flow wetlands Both wetlands were planted with Typha latifolia with one of the wetlands harvested On the other hand, decomposition... the need for current observations when setting conservation goals, monitoring restoration effectiveness, and evaluating anthropogenic impacts In: Wetlands: Ecology, Conservation and Restoration ISBN: 978-1-60456-995-7 Editor: Raymundo E Russo © 2008 Nova Science Publishers, Inc Expert Commentary TWO ALTERNATIVE MODES FOR DIFFUSE POLLUTION CONTROL BY WETLANDS Chen Qingfeng∗1, Shan Baoqing2 and Ma Junjian1... natural wetlands as wastewater discharge sites for many centuries Observations of the wastewater depuration capacity of natural wetlands have led to a greater understanding of the potential of these ecosystems for pollutant assimilation and have stimulated the development of artificial wetlands systems for treatment of wastewaters from a variety of sources Constructed wetlands, in contrast to natural wetlands, ... functional role of wetlands in improving water quality has been, in recent years, a compelling argument for their preservation and study The realization of the importance of wetlands, adjacent to other water bodies, has resulted in the fact that drainage of wetlands has ceased in many countries and that even previously drained wetlands are restored The water treatment capabilities of wetlands are thus... Session I, AGCI Tiner, R.W (2003) Correlating Enhanced National Wetlands Inventory Data with Wetland Functions for Watershed Assessments: A Rationale for Northeastern U.S Wetlands, U.S Fish and Wildlife Service, National Wetlands Inventory Program, Region 5, Hadley, MA 26pp U.S Fish and Wildlife Service (2004) Technical Procedures for Wetlands Status and Trends, Operational Version, Arlington, VA Valta-Hulkkonen,... the information content of multiangle satellite data for mapping biomes II Theory, Remote Sensing of Environment, 80, 435-446 In: Wetlands: Ecology, Conservation and Restoration ISBN: 978-1-60456-995-7 Editor: Raymundo E Russo © 2008 Nova Science Publishers, Inc Chapter 1 WETLANDS: WATER “LIVING FILTERS”? Ana Dordio1∗, A J Palace Carvalho1,2 and Ana Paula Pinto1,3 1 2 Department of Chemistry, University... specifically the hydrological regime of wetlands, as has occurred in the Mar Menor (Southeast Spain) The Mar Menor coastal lagoon and associated wetlands present noticeable ecological and biodiversity values However, the landuse changes in the watershed and the consequent changes in the water and nutrient flows along the period 1980-2005 are threatening the conservation of these wetlands A dynamic model has been... rural areas of China with ecological engineering technologies Chin J Appl Ecol 13 (2), 229–232 (in Chinese) In: Wetlands: Ecology, Conservation and Restoration ISBN: 978-1-60456-995-7 Editor: Raymundo E Russo © 2008 Nova Science Publishers, Inc Short Communication MULTIANGULAR IMAGING OF WETLANDS IN NEW ENGLAND Lesley-Ann L Dupigny-Giroux∗ and Eden Furtak-Cole University of Vermont, Department of Geography... the Article 2.1 stipulates in order to be included in the Ramsar List of internationally important wetlands, they may incorporate: “riparian and coastal zones adjacent to the wetlands, and islands or bodies of marine water deeper than six metres at low tide lying within the wetlands Another definition of wetlands was proposed by the U.S Fish and Wildfire Services, which also developed a classification... federal program to protect wetlands, dramatically elevating the value of these ecosystems However, despite attitudinal changes and new governmental programs, the nation continues to lose its potentially valuable wetlands albeit at a slower rate than was the case in the 1970s and prior to the passage of the CWA This chapter offers an objective evaluation of the federal wetlands protection policy The