CHAPTER 12 MOTIVATION © 2003 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PowerPoint Lecture outline • • • • • Nature of motivation Needs theories Cognitive theories Reinforcement theory Social learning theory © 2003 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PowerPoint Nature of motivation Motivation is the force energising or, giving direction to, behaviour It is a complex interaction of behaviours, needs, rewards/reinforcement and cognitive activities © 2003 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PowerPoint Nature of motivation ability X motivation x environmental = performance conditions © 2003 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PowerPoint Needs theories • • • • Hierarchy of needs theory (Maslow) Two-factor theory (Herzberg) ERG theory (Aldefer) Acquired needs theory (McClelland) © 2003 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PowerPoint Needs theories Hierarchy of needs theory (Maslow): • Theory arguing that individual needs form a five-level hierarchy © 2003 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PowerPoint Needs theories Self-actualisation Esteem Belongingness Safety Physiological © 2003 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PowerPoint Needs theories Two-factor theory (Herzberg) Herzberg’s theory that hygiene factors are necessary to keep workers from feeling dissatisfied but, only motivators can lead workers to feel satisfied and motivated © 2003 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PowerPoint Needs theories Hygiene factors Motivators Pay Working Conditions Supervisors Company Policies Fringe benefits Achievement Responsibility Work itself Recognition Growth Advancement These factors help prevent dissatisfaction These factors promote satisfaction © 2003 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PowerPoint Needs theories ERG theory (Aldefer) Alternative to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory, which argues that there are three levels of individual needs © 2003 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PowerPoint 10 Needs theories Acquired needs theory (McClelland) Theory stating that our needs are acquired or learned on the basis of our life experiences © 2003 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PowerPoint 12 Needs theories Acquired needs theory Developed Developed by by David DavidMcClelland McClelland — — cites citesthe theneed needfor for achievement, achievement,power, power, and and affiliation affiliationas asmajor major motives motivesin inwork work Need Needfor forachievement achievement —drive —driveto toexcel excel Need Needfor forpower—influence power—influenceothers othersbehaviour behaviour Need Needfor foraffiliation—desire affiliation—desirefor for friendly friendly and andclose closeinterpersonal interpersonal relationships relationships © 2003 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PowerPoint 13 Cognitive theories • Expectancy theory • Equity theory • Goal-setting theory © 2003 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PowerPoint 14 Cognitive theories Expectancy theory (Vroom) Theory arguing that we consider three main issues (effort-performance, performanceoutcome, valence) before we expend effort necessary to perform at a given level © 2003 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PowerPoint 15 Cognitive theories • Effort-performance expectancy Our assessment of the probability our efforts will lead to the required level of performance • Performance-outcome expectancy Our assessment of the probability our successful performance will lead to desired outcomes • Valence Our assessment of anticipated value of various outcomes or rewards © 2003 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PowerPoint 16 Cognitive theories Equity theory (Adams) Theory arguing that we prefer situations of balance or, equity Implications for managers: – Communication essential to assess equity/inequity perceptions in employees – Complimentary to Expectancy theory © 2003 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PowerPoint 17 Cognitive theories Goal-setting theory Goal-setting theory [technique] works by focussing attention & action, mobilising effort, increasing persistence, & encouraging the development of strategy to achieve goals © 2003 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PowerPoint 18 Cognitive theories Reinforcement theory Theory arguing that our behaviour can be explained by consequences in the environment © 2003 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PowerPoint 19 Cognitive theories Types of reinforcement: • Positive Uses pleasant, rewarding consequences to encourage desired behaviour Use of shaping • Negative (unpleasant) stimuli so an individual will engage in the desired behaviour to stop the stimuli © 2003 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PowerPoint 20 Cognitive theories Types of reinforcement: • Extinction Stopping previously available positive outcomes from a behaviour to decrease the behaviour • Punishment Providing negative consequences to decrease or discourage a behaviour © 2003 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PowerPoint 21 Reinforcement theory Fixed Fixedinterval: interval: given givenon onfixed fixedtime time schedule schedule.Uneven Uneven responses, responses,extinction extinction rapid rapidififreinforcement reinforcement late, late,ororstops stops Variable Variableinterval: interval: given givenon onvariable variableoror random randomtime timebasis basis High, steady High, steady response responserate, rate,slow slow extinguishment, extinguishment, ififstopped stopped Fixed Fixedratio: ratio: given givenafter afterfixed fixednumber number ofofcases casesofofdesired desiredbehaviour behaviour High Highresponse responserates, rates,rapid rapid extinguishment extinguishmentififstopped stopped even eventemporarily temporarily Variable Variableratio: ratio: given givenon onvariable variableoror random randomfrequency frequency ofofbehaviour behaviourbasis basis High Highresponse responserate, rate, very veryslow slowextinguishment extinguishment Using Using reinforcement reinforcement theory: theory: encourage encouragedesired desired behaviour, behaviour,be beclear clear on onwhat whatisisdesired desired Use Usevariable variableinterval interval &&variable variableratio ratio reinforcement reinforcement Punish Punishmoderately moderately severely severely&&promptly promptly © 2003 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PowerPoint 22 Social learning theory Social learning theory (Bandura) Theory arguing that learning occurs through continuous reciprocal interaction of our behaviours, various personal factors and environmental forces © 2003 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PowerPoint 23 Social learning theory Learning occurs by continuous interaction between our behaviours, personal factors and environmental forces, viz: • Symbolic processes • Self-control/regulation • Vicarious learning © 2003 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PowerPoint 24 Lecture summary • Nature of motivation – Motivational process – Motivation & performance • Needs theories – – – – Hierarchy of needs Two-factor ERG Acquired needs © 2003 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PowerPoint 25 Lecture summary • Cognitive theories Expectancy – Equity – Goal-setting – • Reinforcement theory Positive, negative, extinction, punishment as reinforcement • Social learning theory Symbolic processes, self-control, vicarious learning © 2003 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PowerPoint 26 [...]... Usevariable variableinterval interval &&variable variableratio ratio reinforcement reinforcement Punish Punishmoderately moderately severely severely&&promptly promptly © 2003 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PowerPoint 22 Social learning theory Social learning theory (Bandura) Theory arguing that learning occurs through continuous reciprocal interaction of our behaviours, various personal factors and... environmental forces © 2003 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PowerPoint 23 Social learning theory Learning occurs by continuous interaction between our behaviours, personal factors and environmental forces, viz: • Symbolic processes • Self-control/regulation • Vicarious learning © 2003 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PowerPoint 24 Lecture summary • Nature of motivation – Motivational process – Motivation &... eventemporarily temporarily Variable Variableratio: ratio: given givenon onvariable variableoror random randomfrequency frequency ofofbehaviour behaviourbasis basis High Highresponse responserate, rate, very veryslow slowextinguishment extinguishment Using Using reinforcement reinforcement theory: theory: encourage encouragedesired desired behaviour, behaviour,be beclear clear on onwhat whatisisdesired... for achievement, achievement,power, power, and and affiliation affiliationas asmajor major motives motivesin inwork work Need Needfor forachievement achievement —drive —driveto toexcel excel Need Needfor forpower—influence power—influenceothers othersbehaviour behaviour Need Needfor foraffiliation—desire affiliation—desirefor for friendly friendly and andclose closeinterpersonal interpersonal relationships... 2003 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PowerPoint 16 Cognitive theories Equity theory (Adams) Theory arguing that we prefer situations of balance or, equity Implications for managers: – Communication essential to assess equity/inequity perceptions in employees – Complimentary to Expectancy theory © 2003 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PowerPoint 17 Cognitive theories Goal-setting theory Goal-setting theory... Positive Uses pleasant, rewarding consequences to encourage desired behaviour Use of shaping • Negative (unpleasant) stimuli so an individual will engage in the desired behaviour to stop the stimuli © 2003 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PowerPoint 20 Cognitive theories Types of reinforcement: • Extinction Stopping previously available positive outcomes from a behaviour to decrease the behaviour • Punishment... Frustration-regression Frustration-regression principle principle © 2003 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PowerPoint 11 Needs theories Acquired needs theory (McClelland) Theory stating that our needs are acquired or learned on the basis of our life experiences © 2003 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PowerPoint 12 Needs theories Acquired needs theory Developed Developed by by David DavidMcClelland McClelland... needs Physiological Physiological(food, (food,water) water) Pay Pay Benefits Benefits Working Workingconditions conditions Relatedness Relatednessneeds needs Relationships Relationshipswith withfamily, family, work workand andprofessional professional groups groups Growth Growthneeds needs Creativity Creativity Innovation Innovation Productivity Productivity Satisfaction-progression Satisfaction-progression... McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PowerPoint 15 Cognitive theories • Effort-performance expectancy Our assessment of the probability our efforts will lead to the required level of performance • Performance-outcome expectancy Our assessment of the probability our successful performance will lead to desired outcomes • Valence Our assessment of anticipated value of various outcomes or rewards © 2003 McGraw-Hill... negative consequences to decrease or discourage a behaviour © 2003 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PowerPoint 21 Reinforcement theory Fixed Fixedinterval: interval: given givenon onfixed fixedtime time schedule schedule.Uneven Uneven responses, responses,extinction extinction rapid rapidififreinforcement reinforcement late, late,ororstops stops Variable Variableinterval: interval: given givenon onvariable