INFLUENCE OF TRANSBOUNDARY POLLUTION OF BIOMASS BURNING ON IONIC COMPOUNDS IN URBAN PARTICULATES NGUYEN DUC MINH NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE 2010 INFLUENCE OF TRANSBOUNDARY POLLUTION OF BIOMASS BURNING ON IONIC COMPOUNDS IN URBAN PARTICULATES NGUYEN DUC MINH (B.Eng (Hons.), Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology, Vietnam) A THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE 2010 Acknowledgements I would like to express my deepest gratitude and appreciation to my supervisor; Associate Professor Liya Yu, who not only gives me valuable guidance in research but is my mentor throughout my academic program I would also like to give my deepest appreciation to all the staff members in the Division of Environmental Science and Engineering and all my fellows in the lab I would like to acknowledge to National University of Singapore for providing the Research Scholarship and to the Division of Environmental Science and Engineering for providing the facilities to take this study through in its entirety I am extremely grateful to my parents and parents-in-law for their love and full support throughout the time Last but not the least, I would like to express the greatest appreciation to my wife and son for their patience and love which encourage me during hard time of my experimental progress Nguyen Duc Minh Aug 2010 i TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements i TABLE OF CONTENTS ii SUMMARY iv LIST OF TABLES vi LIST OF FIGURES vii Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Objectives Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Transboundary Pollution 2.1.1 Transboundary Pollution of Dust Storm 2.1.2 Transboundary Pollution of Anthropogenic Pollution 2.1.3 Transboundary Pollution of Biomass Burning 2.1.4 Transboundary Pollution of Biomass Burning and Particulate Matters 13 2.1.5 Transboundary Pollution of Biomass Burning and Ionic Species 13 2.2 Oxalic Acid in Atmospheric Aerosols 16 2.3 Size Distribution of Inorganic Ions, Oxalic, Malonic, and Succinic Acid 17 2.3.1 Size Distribution of Inorganic Ions in Atmospheric Aerosols 18 2.3.2 Size Distribution of Oxalic, Malonic and Succinic Acids in Atmospheric Aerosols 20 Chapter 3: METHODOLOGY 33 3.1 Sample Collection 33 3.1.1 Sampling Site and Duration 33 ii 3.1.2 Bulk Particulate Sampling (PM2.5) 34 3.1.3 Size-Segregated Particulate Sampling 35 3.2 Back Trajectory Analysis 35 3.3 Chemical Analysis 36 Chapter 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 38 4.1 Effects of Transboundary Pollution on Bulk and Size Segregated Particulates 38 4.1.1 Identification of Influence of Transboudanry Smoke 38 4.1.2 PM2.5 and PM10 44 4.1.3 Size Segregated Particulate Matter 48 4.2 Effects of Transboundary Pollution on Oxalates in PM2.5 51 4.3 Effects of Transboundary Pollution on Size Distributions of Inorganic Ions and Oxalates 55 4.3.1 Size Distribution of Cations 56 4.3.2 Size Distribution of Anions 61 4.3.3 Size Distribution of Oxalates 65 4.3.4 Correlation Among Ionic Species 67 4.3.5 Chemical Composition of Fine Particulates 69 Chapter 5: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 76 5.1 Conclusions 76 5.2 Recommendations 78 Appendix 79 References 86 iii SUMMARY Transboundary pollution of biomass burning smoke is a recurrent issue affecting air quality at receptor site, such as Singapore In this study, daily PM2.5 collected in Singapore in 2006, 2008, and 2009, and weekly size segregated particles sampled in weeks of 2008 were chemically characterized Back trajectory analysis along with satellite images (haze maps) was employed to differentiate between smoke episodes vs non-smoke episodes With a strong influence of transboundary smoke, PM2.5 was linearly correlated with visibility (R2=0.85), and PM10 to PM2.5 ratio substantially decreased Mass size distribution of particulates appeared in bimodal distribution, peaking at cut-off size of 0.38 and 4.1 µm Transboundary pollution of biomass burning smoke reinforced size distribution with higher concentration, rather than altering distribution pattern Oxalates in PM2.5 were enhanced by 2.5, 1.6, and 0.6 times due to the transboundary smoke in 2006, 2008, and 2009 respectively Chemical characterization of size segregated particles showed that NH4+, K+, SO42- and oxalates dominated in fine mode particles (0.384 µm), whereas Mg2+, Ca2+, Cl-, NO3occupied in coarse mode particles The concentration of major ions changed in the order of SO42- > NH4+ > NO3- > Cl- > K+ > Na+ > Ca2+ > Mg2+ Appearance of both NH4+ and SO42- in droplet mode (0.384 µm) was attributed to condensation of NH3 on surface of acidic particles, and an unusual appearance of NH4+ in 0.029 µm (nuclei mode) in week is observed K+ was highly affected by biomass burning smoke with higher fine-coarse ratio of K+ during smoke episodes Mg2+ and Ca2+ were mostly found in coarse mode particles; and significant enhanced under influence of transboundary pollution It indicated Mg2+ and Ca2+ were contributed from crustal particles which were re-suspended during burning process Cl- and iv NO3- concentrated in coarse mode particles during the transboundary smoke episode Oxalates showed unimodal distribution in background condition, bimodal distribution under partial effects of transboundary pollution, and trimodal distribution with full effect of transboundary pollution A high correlation coefficient (R2>0.82) between oxalates and SO42in sampling weeks suggested their in-cloud process formation pathway Enrichment of oxalates in 2.4 µm particles was attributed to heterogeneous formation on surface of sea salt particles, while their appearance in nuclei mode (0.057 µm) could be due to photochemical reactions of hydrocarbons with oxidants followed by gas-particle condensation v LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1: Effects of transboundary on atmospheric aerosols Table 2.2: Effects of biomass burning transboundary pollution on PM10 and PM2.5 15 Table 2.3: Size distribution of inorganic compounds in atmospheric aerosols 22 Table 2.4 Size distribution of oxalic (C2 DCA), malonic (C3 DCA) and succinic (C4 DCA) acids in atmospheric aerosols 29 Table 4.1: Visibility and its correlation with particulate matter during the sampling periods in 2006, 2008, and 2009 43 Table 4.2: Effects of transboundary smoke on PM10 and PM2.5 during the sampling periods in 2006, 2008, and 2009, and in other studies on transboundary biomass burning pollution 45 Table 4.3: Comparison of accumulated particulate in size segregated ELPI with PM2.5 49 Table 4.4: Concentrations of oxalates under transboundary pollution 54 Table 4.5: Fine/ coarse ratio of size segregated particles during weeks of sampling period in 2008 61 Table 4.6: Linear correlation coefficient between ions 69 Table 4.7: Chemical compositions (presented in percentage (%) and average concentration (ng/m3)) of fine particles in various studies 73 vi LIST OF FIGURES Figure 4.1: (a) gravimetric data vs the minimal transport duration of smoke to reach Singapore, and (b) gravimetric data and visibility during the sampling period in 2006 39 Figure 4.2: (a) gravimetric data vs the minimal transport duration of smoke to reach Singapore, and (b) gravimetric data and visibility during the sampling period in 2008 41 Figure 4.3: (a) gravimetric data vs the minimal transport duration of smoke to reach Singapore, and (b) gravimetric data and visibility during the sampling period in 2009 42 Figure 4.4: Accumulative mass concentration of size segregated particulates during sampling period of 2008 50 Figure 4.5: Distribution of particulates during the sampling period in 2008 51 Figure 4.6: Temporal trend of PM2.5 and oxalate during sampling period of (a) 2006; (b) 2008; and (c) 2009 54 Figure 4.7: Mass size distribution of (a) NH4+; (b) K+; (c) Mg2+; (d) Ca2+ during weeks of sampling period in 2008 61 Figure 4.8: Mass size distribution of (a) Cl-; (b) NO3-; (c) SO42- during weeks of sampling period in 2008 64 Figure 4.9: Mass size distribution of oxalates during weeks of sampling period in 2008 66 Figure 4.10: Contribution of chemical species to mass concentration of fine particles 70 vii Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Introduction Singapore, a small island city-nation located at the southern tip of Malayan peninsula, is highly urbanized and industrialized The weather of Singapore is characterized with a relatively stable condition throughout the year due to its close proximity to the equator with high relative humidity (RH) (61-90%) and abundant rainfall (~2300 mm per year) The maximum and minimum daily average temperature in 2009 was 31.1oC and 24.7oC, respectively (Yearbook of Statistics Singapore 2009) There are two monsoon seasons in Singapore yearly: northeast monsoon season from late November to March and southwest monsoon season from late May to September From April to early May and October to early November are generally transitional months separating the two monsoon seasons During the northeast monsoon season, the wind direction of north to northeast dominates On the other hand, during the southwest monsoon season, the south to southwest/southeast wind prevails Northeast monsoon season brings more rainfall, about 48% of the total annual rainfall; only 36% of the annual rainfall occurs during the southwest monsoon season (Yearbook of Statistics Singapore 2009) Depending on wind speed and direction, air quality in Singapore can be substantially influenced by transboundary pollutants from neighboring countries The transboundary pollutants were originated from biomass burning in Sumatra and Borneo/ Kalimantan island for removing dry vegetation, clearing land, shifting cultivation, and converting forest to agricultural lands (Nichol, 1998) From 1985 to 1997, there was a total loss of forest land area of 19 million hectares in Indonesia (Jones, 2006; Nichol, 1998) In References Abas, M.R.B.; Oros, D.R.; Simoneit, B.R.T., 2004 Biomass burning as the main source of organic aerosol particulate matter in Malaysia during 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Evaluating effects of transboundary biomass burning smoke on the concentration of oxalates in PM2.5; and • Examining effects of transboundary biomass burning pollutants on the size distribution of inorganics,.. .INFLUENCE OF TRANSBOUNDARY POLLUTION OF BIOMASS BURNING ON IONIC COMPOUNDS IN URBAN PARTICULATES NGUYEN DUC MINH (B.Eng (Hons.), Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology, Vietnam)... Biomass Burning 2.1.4 Transboundary Pollution of Biomass Burning and Particulate Matters 13 2.1.5 Transboundary Pollution of Biomass Burning and Ionic Species 13 2.2 Oxalic Acid in