LOANWORD ADAPTATION IN TAMIL NEO HWEE YANG B.A. (Hons), NUS DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE 2010/2011 LOANWORD ADAPTATION IN TAMIL NEO HWEE YANG B.A. (Hons), NUS A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PART FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE FACULTY OF ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE 2010/2011 For my loved ones ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My undergraduate and graduate education in NUS brought to me not only intellectual gratification, but also the chance to mingle with the best, and to meet the love of my life. Graduate school was blessed with the company of excellent mentors and peers. First and foremost, I would like to acknowledge my debt of gratitude to my supervisor Associate Professor Bao Zhiming who mentored me not only for my undergraduate thesis but also for my graduate thesis. He encouraged me to pursue my interest in Tamil which eventually culminated into the present thesis. My debt to him is not only intellectual but also character-wise; he taught me not only linguistics but also humility. Many other professors also played integral roles; Professor Mohanan whom I will always remember as ―the matchmaker‖ because I met my wife in his Linguistic Argumentation class; Assistant Professor Xu Zheng who inspired me to read up on loanword studies; Doctor Thinnappan who taught me Tamil; and Doctor Ho Chee Lick who has been a great counselor always willing to lend a listening ear. My peers and seniors: Liangcai, Pixian, Qizhong, Stella, Songqing, Liu Yu, and Yiqiong- also contributed with advice. Graduate school became even more fulfilling because of my wife who shares similar passions in linguistics and life. If linguistics was fun before I met you, it became even more so after we were together. Last but not least, my parents for all the faith they have in me and supporting me unwaveringly knowing that I will see the light at the end of the tunnel. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................... iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................... iv LIST OF TABLES AND DIAGRAMS ............................................................................ vii ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................................viii CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Introduction............................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Background of Tamil ................................................................................................ 4 1.3 Prior Research in Tamil Loanwords and Tamil ........................................................ 6 1.4 Current Views in Loanword Adaptation ................................................................... 7 1.4.1 The Perception Viewpoint........................................................................... 8 1.4.2 The Production Viewpoint .......................................................................... 8 1.4.3 The Perception and Production Viewpoint ................................................. 9 1.4.4 Summary ..................................................................................................... 9 1.5 Goals and Structure of this Paper ........................................................................... 10 CHAPTER TWO .............................................................................................................. 11 2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 11 2.2 Tamil Orthography .................................................................................................. 11 2.3 Tamil Phonological System .................................................................................... 15 2.3.1 Tamil Consonant Phonemes ............................................................................. 16 2.3.2 Tamil Vowel Phonemes ................................................................................... 18 2.3.3 Tamil Syllable Structure and Phonotactics ...................................................... 19 2.4 English Phonology .................................................................................................. 22 2.4.1 English Consonant Phonemes .......................................................................... 22 2.4.2 English Vowel Phonemes ................................................................................ 23 iv 2.4.3 English Syllable Structure and Phonotactics .................................................... 24 2.5 Comparison between English and Tamil ................................................................ 28 2.6 Data ......................................................................................................................... 30 2.7 Summary ................................................................................................................. 31 CHAPTER THREE........................................................................................................... 32 3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 32 3.2 Consonantal Phonemes Mapping ............................................................................ 33 3.2.1 Plosives ............................................................................................................ 33 3.2.2 Nasals ............................................................................................................... 39 3.2.3 Fricatives .......................................................................................................... 42 3.2.4 Affricates .......................................................................................................... 44 3.2.5 Laterals and Rhotics ......................................................................................... 45 3.2.6 Glides ............................................................................................................... 47 3.3 Vowel Phonemes Mapping ..................................................................................... 48 3.4 Explanation for Mapping ........................................................................................ 59 3.4.1 An Account of Consonant Mapping ................................................................ 59 3.4.2 An Account of Vowel Mapping ....................................................................... 72 3.5 Summary ................................................................................................................. 75 CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................................. 77 4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 77 4.2 Differing patterns of adaptation of consonant clusters ............................................ 77 4.2.1 Epenthesis ........................................................................................................ 78 4.2.2 Coalescence ...................................................................................................... 81 4.2.3 Direct Adaptation ............................................................................................. 81 4.2.4 Why Conflicting Patterns are attested .............................................................. 82 4.3 Differing patterns of adaptation for complex vowels .............................................. 87 v 4.3.1 Diphthongal Adaptation ................................................................................... 87 4.3.2 Triphthong Adaptation ..................................................................................... 89 4.3.3 Explanation for differing strategies .................................................................. 90 4.4 Summary ................................................................................................................. 95 CHAPTER FIVE............................................................................................................... 96 5.1 Main Findings ......................................................................................................... 96 5.2 Model of Adaptation ............................................................................................... 97 5.3 Future Studies ......................................................................................................... 98 REFERENCES................................................................................................................ 100 APPENDIX ..................................................................................................................... 106 Part 1: List of OT Constraints and Definitions ........................................................... 106 Part 2: Transcribed Data.............................................................................................. 108 vi LIST OF TABLES AND DIAGRAMS Core Tamil Phonemes and Corresponding Characters ..................................................... 17 Tamil Consonant Phonemes .............................................................................................. 18 Tamil Vowel Phonemes .................................................................................................... 19 English Consonant Phonemes ........................................................................................... 23 English Monophthongal Vowel Phonemes ....................................................................... 23 English Diphthongal Vowel Phonemes ............................................................................ 23 English Triphthongal Vowels ........................................................................................... 24 Two Consonantal Onset Clusters Beginning with /s/........................................................ 25 Two Consonantal Onset Clusters Comprising of C+ Approximant .................................. 26 Two Consonantal Coda Clusters Formed Through Suffixation ........................................ 27 Two Consonantal Coda Cluster ........................................................................................ 27 Plosive Adaptation ............................................................................................................ 36 Plosives in intervocalic contexts ....................................................................................... 38 Nasal Adaptation ............................................................................................................... 41 Fricative Adaptation .......................................................................................................... 43 Affricate Adaptation ......................................................................................................... 45 Lateral and Rhotic Adaptation .......................................................................................... 47 Glide Adaptation ............................................................................................................... 48 Tamil Vowel Phonemes .................................................................................................... 48 English Monophthongal Vowel Phonemes ....................................................................... 48 Long Monophthong Adaptation ........................................................................................ 49 Short Monophthong Adaptation ........................................................................................ 51 vii ABSTRACT This thesis studies a set of English-Tamil loan data based on Tucker (1986) and proposes an analysis from the main approaches of loanword adaptation: the production grammar, the perception and the combined viewpoints. In terms of phoneme mapping, we claim that an appeal has to be made to typological influences and bilingualism to account for the prevalence of voicing in adaptations which is non-existent in Native Tamil. Differing strategies are evoked in adaptation because of the different contexts of borrowing which can comprise of either one or many representations: phonological, phonetic and orthographic representations – as its input source. The input source is then run through different components of grammar which can comprise of the phonological grammar, perception, and orthographic knowledge in isolation or in tandem. Thus we conclude from our findings that it is hard to subscribe to only one approach to account for the observed findings. A combined approach is much suitable as a strategy to account for the strategies used for adaptation. viii CHAPTER ONE Loanword Phonology 1.1 Introduction The study of loanword phonology has gathered increasing momentum in recent years with the conceptual shift from rules to a constraints and repair model of sound change (Kenstowicz & Suchato 2006: 921). Three factors have motivated this field of study (Kenstowicz 2003a: 95): firstly, loanwords can be used to test the productivity of existing phonological rules and constraints; secondly, the notion of a single grammar is challenged when a loan system forms a distinct component in a native system (Weinreich 1953, Itô & Mester 1995); and thirdly, adaptation patterns which pose learnability puzzles similar to those that Stampean (1972) natural processes raise for primary language acquisition coincide with cross-linguistically natural and well attested processes and constraints, which can be attributed to Universal Grammar(UG), implying that speakers can call on aspects of UG in adulthood (Shinohara 2004). Extensive research on loanword phonology have been undertaken on a multitude of languages ranging from Cantonese (Silverman 1992, Yip 1993), Fijian (Kenstowicz 2003b), Fon (Gbéto 2000), Fula (Paradis & LaCharité 1997), Hausa (Leben 1996), Huave (Davidson & Noyer 1997), Japanese (Itô & Mester 1995, Shinohara 2000), Kirgiz (Gouskova 2001), Korean (Kang 2003, Kenstowicz 1 2005), Lhasa Tibetan (Hsieh & Kenstowicz 2006), Mandarin Chinese (Miao 2005), Selayarese (Broselow 1999), Yoruba (Kenstowicz 2004), and many much more. Even though the theoretical assumptions and frameworks of these studies may differ, their results converge on the conclusion that loanword adaptation is not random but systematic and may involve differing mechanisms. The adaptation of a loanword is parallel to a balancing act, but one of linguistic nature. A speaker tries to keep the loan as similar as possible to the source and native language at the same time. In the phonological component of language, adaptation can take place on the many diverse levels of phonology, such as the segmental, the phonotactic, and the prosodic level. In Japanese for instance, segmental change is triggered when certain sounds of a source language i.e. English are not available in the inventory of Japanese, in the replacement of English consonants /f/, /θ/, /ɹ/, /l/, /v/, and /ð/ which are missing in the Japanese inventory with [ɸ], [s], [r], [b], [z] (Kato 2006: 107-108): English Japanese Examples /f/  [ɸ] form /fɔɹm/ [ɸoomu] /θ/  [s] bath /bæθ/ [basu] /ɹ/, /l/  [r] light /layt/ [raito] Rain /ɹeɪn/ [reyN] /v/  [b] victory /vɪktəri/ [bikutorii] /ð/  [z] the / ðə/ [za] 2 On the phonotactic level, Japanese does not permit complex onsets, and if a borrowed word contains a complex onset, vowel epenthesis occurs to repair an illformed onset (Kato 2006:108): ‗play‘ /pley/  [pUre:] *[pe:], *[re:], *[pre:] ‗blue‘ /bluw/  [bUru:] *[bu:], *[ru:], *[bru:] Prosodic level-wise in Japanese, the difference between a stressed lax vowel and an unstressed lax vowel in English is perceived as a difference in vowel duration, and gemination is triggered to preserve difference in vowel duration in Japanese adaptations (Kato 2006: 116): [p] happy /ˈhæpi/ [happi:] [t] motto /ˈmatoʊ/ [motto:] [k] cookie /ˈkʊki/ [kukki:] Thus, based on the above examples, we see that adaptations not only occur on the different levels, but they are also constrained by the need to be similar to the source and match the native system. In this dissertation, we present a study of loanword adaptation in Tamil based on data from a dictionary of English words adapted into Modern Tamil (Tucker 1986). Even though there is no lack of research about loanword adaptation in the field, not much focus has been paid to Modern Tamil. Prior research in Tamil loanwords focused mainly on historical borrowings and is mainly of descriptive, etymological, or sociolinguistic nature (e.g. Zvelebil & Vacek 1970, 3 Vaidyanathan 1971, Wallden 1980). A wide-ranging linguistic analysis of Tamil loan adaptation will be presented here focusing on the phonemic substitutions, phonotactics, and prosodic adaptations. Subsequently, we propose an explanation for the observed phenomena. The structure of the remaining parts of this chapter is as follows: section 1.2 presents a brief background of Tamil; section 1.3 touches on prior research on Tamil and Tamil loans; section 1.4 highlights the current views on loanword adaptation; and section 1.5 outlines the research goals and organization of this dissertation. 1.2 Background of Tamil Tamil belongs to the South Dravidian language family which consists of Badaga, Irula, Kannada, Kodagu, Kota, Malayalam, Tamil, Toda, and Tulu, and it is considered to be the most eminent amongst the Dravidian languages because it has the longest literary tradition which covered more than two thousand years (Steever 1998:1). The languages which bear the closest similarity to it are Malayalam, spoken in the neighbouring state Kerala, and Irula, spoken in the Nilgris district of Tamil Nadu (Steever 1998:101). The earliest records of Tamil are inscriptions on caves and pottery dating back from the second century BCE (Zvelebil and Vacek 1970: 11) and these inscriptions are written with a variant of the Brahmi script called Tamil Brahmi (Mahadevan 2003:90-95). The earliest extant literary text is the grammar Tolkāppiyam which describes the grammar and poetics of Tamil and its origins are still being disputed today. The two thousand year uninterrupted history of the 4 language can be distinguished as belonging to three different stages: Old Tamil (300 BCE to 700 CE), Middle Tamil (700–1600) and Modern Tamil (1600– present), each with distinct grammatical characteristics (Lehmann 1998:75). Currently, Tamil is the first language of the majority in Tamil Nadu in India, and the Northern and Eastern Provinces of Sri Lanka. The language is also spoken by small groups of minorities in other parts of these two countries such as Karnataka, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra in India, and Colombo the hill country in Sri Lanka. Additionally, there are significant pockets of speakers as far north as Bihar, Nepal and Pakistan, and sizable Tamil-speaking populations descended from colonial-era migrants in Malaysia, Singapore, Mauritius, South Africa, Indonesia, Thailand, Burma, and Vietnam. Tamil has official status in the state of Tamil Nadu, Singapore and Sri Lanka (Gordon, (ed) 2005, Asher 1985: ix). Based on the 2001 India census, the number of Tamil speakers stands at 60,893,731 in the whole of India (Census 2001). Like many other languages, Tamil shows signs of Fergusonian diglossia (Ferguson 1959), and most research are on the so called ‗high‘ variety used for writing and formal speaking also known as centamil ‗pure Tamil‘, with little focus on the ‗low‘ variety used for purposes of conversation also known as kotuntamil ‗harsh Tamil‘ (Steever 1998: 6, Asher 1985: ix). We shall see in the next section that the opinions towards the formal and informal varieties of Tamil and attitudes towards language will play a role in the research of Tamil loanwords. 5 1.3 Prior Research in Tamil Loanwords and Tamil Many loanwords have been borrowed into Tamil over the course of its long history, but research in this area has not received great emphasis. This is not surprising as there is traditionally a sense of linguistic purism within the community. This attitude persists even today in the bifurcation of Tamil into centamil and kotutamil, which has positive and negative connotations respectively. There was strong resistance especially to the influence of Sanskrit and words borrowed from Sanskrit were called vatacol (northern word) in the Tolkāppiyam which highlights the north-south divide in India. Loanwords still crept into the language despite strong resistance because of trading links and cultural influences but not without any struggle (Meenakshisundaram 1965: 169-193). Though vocabulary is drawn in, in thought and to some extent, in form, but in sound, Tamil always resists the influence of the other languages (Rajan 1980:310). Thus we see that the Tamil grammarians place great emphasis in maintaining the ―purity‖ of Tamil with some of them exalting the language as kannittamil ―virgin‖ (Meenakshisundaram 1965: 1). Even though borrowings are frowned upon in the language, research on borrowings do exist but most of them are either descriptive accounts or historical studies, with some of them summaries of prior research. Meenakshisundaram (1965) provides a good detailed account of the history of the Tamil language, describing some loanwords and their sources, and the period they entered the language. Rajan (1980) summarises briefly research in Tamil loanwords and provides some description of loanword data. Vaidyanathan (1971) discusses Indo- 6 Aryan loanwords in Old Tamil, and Zvelebil and Vacek (1970) provides detailed data on some loanwords even though their main goal was to describe the grammar of Old Tamil and early Modern Tamil. Though there is a dearth of theoretical research in Tamil loanwords, there is plenty of research on the native system. Most of them are studies on traditional grammar such as morphophonemics (Arden 1976), and syntax and morphology (Lehmann 1989). More recent studies employ theoretical approaches such as the one taken by Christdas (1988) which examines the Kanniyakumari dialect from the perspective of lexical phonology and underspecification theory. Given that there are not existing phonological analyses of loanword adaptation in Tamil, this paper aims to fill this gap in knowledge so that we can gain further insight into Tamil phonology and also to enrich the current field. In the next section, we discuss contemporary ideas on loanword adaptation. 1.4 Current Views in Loanword Adaptation As mentioned previously in the chapter, loanword adaptation has gathered huge attention in linguistics, especially in the area of phonology, with extensive research conducted in this topic, and there is a degree of consensus that it is not random but systematic, with differences existing in their theoretical assumptions and frameworks used. In this section, we briefly introduce the main views taken with regard to loanword adaptation. The three main positions taken can be grouped as under the perceptual, the production, and the perception and production viewpoints. 7 1.4.1 The Perception Viewpoint The perception viewpoint conception of loanword adaptation is first based on Silverman‘s (1992) research on Cantonese where a speaker perceives a foreign word based on an independent speech perception module based on phonetic similarity. Under this approach, speakers base their adaptations purely on perception or rather misperception and have no access to the phonology of the foreign word (Peperkamp & Dupoux 2003). For instance, it is assumed that when a Japanese speaker listens to an English word ―hit‖, what he really hears is /hit:o/, rather than the English pronunciation /hɪt/. Thus, the adaptation of ―hit‖ into /hit:o/ is fulfilled in perception, while phonology does not play any function (Miao 2005). This position on loanword adaptation is however inadequate as it is assumes a direct borrowing from phonetic inputs, and ignores firstly, situations where a speaker is bilingual and has knowledge of the foreign language phonology (Paradis & LaCharité 1997), and secondly, situations where there are intervening factors (Smith 2006). 1.4.2 The Production Viewpoint The production viewpoint however adopts an opposite position in that it assumes that loanword adaptation is done by bilinguals who possess knowledge of the phonologies of both languages, and utilize it to map equal phonological categories and structures, ignoring phonetic realization (Itô & Mester 1995, Paradis 1996, Paradis & LaCharité 1997, Davidson & Noyer 1997). 8 For instance, Itô & Mester (1995) which we will see later proposes an optimaltheoretic approach whereby reranking of a set of Faithfulness constraints will result in the core (native) versus periphery (foreign) strata of Japanese lexicon. Again, this position falls short as it cannot account for all the loan adaptation situations or phenomenon. For instance we shall see later that positing strata phonology for Tamil can only account for parts of the loan data observed. 1.4.3 The Perception and Production Viewpoint The perception and production viewpoint utilizes both perception and production to explicate loanword adaptations and different versions exist whereby some of them utilize separate levels for perception and production controlled by different grammars (Silverman 1992, Yip 1993, Kenstowicz 2003a), while some combine them in one level (Steriade 2002, Kang 2003, Kenstowicz 2003b). This viewpoint combines the strengths of the two previous approaches, allowing the speaker to be able to perceive phonetic differences while at the same time having access to their innate language capabilities. 1.4.4 Summary We have discussed the three main positions taken with regard to loanword adaptation and the assumptions which they make, and their short comings. Given that loanword adaptation is complex and highly variable, it is only natural that there is no sole solution for it. In this paper, we will attempt to formulate an explanation for the facts encountered keeping in mind the existing viewpoints. In the next section, we discuss the research goals of this paper and the structure which we will follow for the rest of the paper. 9 1.5 Goals and Structure of this Paper The goal of this dissertation is twofold: firstly, to identify the adaptation patterns in Tamil loanwords on the various levels of the phonology; secondly, in light of the current views in loan adaptation, this dissertation aims to test whether one of the viewpoints can best deal with the data in Tamil. The structure of the dissertation is as follows: Chapter 2 introduces the orthographic and phonological system of Tamil comparing it with English phonology; Chapter 3 will deal with the adaptation of English segments into Tamil and we propose an analysis for the adaptation; Chapter 4 will analyze the repairs required on the phonotactic level in Tamil and we try to account for the patterns observed; and lastly, we conclude our paper in Chapter 5 summarising our findings and the consequences our study has for the field. 10 CHAPTER TWO Background of Tamil and English 2.1 Introduction In this chapter, we provide the background for the future chapters by first introducing the Tamil orthographic system followed by its phonology. Next an overview of the English phonological system will be presented followed by a comparison between the two systems. Finally we further discuss the data we are examining. 2.2 Tamil Orthography The Tamil orthographic system is an alphasyllabary; it writes each consonantvowel sequence as a unit. Its basic consonant signs include the inherent vowel a while other postconsonantal vowels are written with obligatory diacritics, and initial vowels are written with independent signs (Bright 1999, Coulmas 2003: 140, Steever 1996: 426). The modern system is based on three different scripts namely the vaṭṭeḻuttu ―rounded letters‖, grantha ―book or manuscript‖, and pallava. It comprises of three layers, the first adequately represents the core phonology of Tamil consisting of a total of 12 vowels, 18 consonants, and one special character called the āytam. Altogether, the vowels and consonants can form 216 compound characters thus deriving a total of 247 characters (Steever 1996:426). The second 11 layer adds five grantha letters, which include signs to represent consonants and clusters borrowed from Sanskrit and felicitously, English, e.g. ஸ sa ஹ ha. The third layer introduces the ancient symbol āytam into modern orthography. When placed before a p or j, the combination represents a corresponding fricative, borrowed from other languages into the periphery of Tamil phonology; thus āytam + p = f. However there are no symbols or combinations to represent borrowed vowels, such as English [ae] (Steever 1996: 427). The basic consonantal and vowel forms and their phonetic correspondents are given below (Steever 1996: 428): Basic Form Transcription Phone க் k [k], [ɡ], [x], [ɣ], [h] ங் ṅ [ŋ] ச் c [tʃ], [dʒ], [ʃ], [s], [ʒ] ஞ் ñ [ɲ] ட் ṭ [ʈ], [ɖ], [ɽ] ண் ṇ [ɳ] த் t [t], [d], [ð] ந் n [n] ப் p [p], [b], [β] ம் m [m] 12 Basic Form Transcription Phone ய் y [j] ர் r [ɾ] ல் l [l] வ் v [ʋ] ழ் ḻ [ɻ] ள் ḷ [ɭ] ற் ṟ [r], [t], [d] ன் ṉ [n] அ a [ʌ] ஆ ā [ɑː] இ i [i] ஈ ī [iː] உ u [u], [ɯ] ஊ ū [uː] ஋ e [e] ஌ ē [eː] ஍ ai [ʌj] எ o [o] ஏ ō [oː] ஐ au [ʌʋ] 13 The grantha forms and their phonetic correspondents are given below: Basic Form Transcription Phone ஜ் j [dʒ] ஷ் ṣ [ʂ] ஸ் s [s] ஹ் h [h] க்ஷ் kṣ [kʂ] As we observe above, the consonant graphs used are phonemic, not phonetic: for example, ஑ may represent [ka], [ga], or [ha], depending on distribution (Steever 1996: 426). For all the obstruents, a single graph is used for each place of articulation reflecting the fact that voicing is not contrastive in the native Dravidian vocabulary. Rather there is complementary distribution of different phonetic alternants, sometimes referred to as Caldwell‘s Law (1856: 102). In word-initial position voiceless plosives are found, while voiced obstruents occur word-internally after nasal segments, and intervocalically their exact realization depends on the place of articulation. For dentals there is variation between a voiced stop and fricative, and for bilabials there may be further weakening to an approximant. For retroflexed sounds either a voiced stop or a flap is found between vowels. Several possibilities have been reported for velar sounds, including a voiceless palatal fricative, voiced and voiceless velar fricatives, and the voiced glottal fricative (Keane 2004: 112). The graphs ஢ na and ண na correspond to subphonemic differences and are considered to be an alveolar nasal 14 having two orthographic representations. To represent consonants without vowels, as in clusters or in a coda position, a dot called puɭɭi is placed over a consonant sign to suppress the inherent vowel (Steever 1996: 427). In the next section we discuss the phonological system of Tamil. 2.3 Tamil Phonological System Descriptions of Tamil phonology in existing literature either focus on the classical formal literary variety commonly known as centamil or on the informal spoken variety known as kotuntamil. The formal variety is modeled closely to the Tamil orthography and is resistant to changes while the informal variety has no correspondence. There are however efforts to represent the informal variety using Tamil orthography and the central dialect spoken by non-educated Brahmins in Tanjore, Trichy, and Madurai is considered to be the basis for the standard dialect (Annamalai & Steever 1998: 101, Schiffman 1999: 1-2). Several descriptions of various geographic varieties also exist, such as the Kanniyakumari dialect (Christdas 1988) or the Northern Arcot District dialect spoken in Madras (Asher 1985). Given the diversity of the descriptions of Tamil, the question we have here is which variety of Tamil to base our paper on. For our purposes, we will need to utilize both formal and informal descriptions of Tamil. This is because the corpus is drawn from popular periodicals, newspapers, modern novels, and short stories which contain both formal and informal language use. The so called formal and informal varieties do not differ much in their basic inventory but in their 15 phonotactics and syllable structure. The formal variety represents an earlier stage of the language and rules deriving the informal variety from the formal are easier to formulate than working in the opposite direction (Asher 1985: 259). We first begin with a description of the Tamil consonant phonemes, followed by the vowel phonemes, then the syllable structure and phonotactics. 2.3.1 Tamil Consonant Phonemes In most accounts of the phonology of modern Tamil, the orthography or ―the transcription of the written language‖ is taken as the underlying phonological representation (Annamalai and Steever 1998:101). This is unsatisfactory because the orthography is unable to represent new developments in the Tamil language such as the development of voicing contrasts in obstruents because of influence from Hindi and other languages. This usual approach classifies the native core having a fixed number of consonant phonemes, usually eighteen which correspond to the number of consonantal characters: 16 Table 1: Core Tamil Phonemes and Corresponding Characters Plosives Nasals Labial Dental p Alveolar Retroflex Palatal Velar t ʈ c k த ஡ ட ஓ ஑ m n n ɳ ɲ ŋ ஥ ஢ ண ஠ ஞ ஒ ɻ j ஫ ஦ Tap ஧ r Trill ந Central ʋ approximants ஬ Lateral approximants l ɭ ன ப This state of affairs corresponds more to the formal literary variety of the language, with the informal variety exhibiting variability. Additionally, the status of the exact number of phonemes in the inventory is under dispute. The pairings of [n] and [n], [ɾ] and [r], and [ɻ] and [ɭ] are claimed to be undergoing mergers in various accounts and are only distinguishable orthographically or in very formal contexts or speakers (Keane 2004: 112-113). [ŋ] and [ɲ] are also marginally phonemic occurring in words like aŋŋaanam ‗that manner‘ and ɲaajiru‗Sunday‘. 17 Differing accounts of Modern Tamil place the number of underlying consonant phonemes (consisting of the core phonology) from 15 to 17 (Vacek 1970: 121, Annamalai & Steever 1998:102, Christdas 1988: 135). Factoring in the loan phonemes from the grantha system /dʒ f s ʂ h/ (in square brackets), the voicing contrast for obstruents acquired later with interaction with systems which possess voicing (in brackets), and the representative Tamil consonantal inventory is as below (with the phonemes supposedly undergoing mergers in arrow brackets): Table 2: Tamil Consonant Phonemes Plosive Labial Dental p (b) t (d) Alveolar Retroflex Palatal ʈ (ɖ) Affricate c Velar Glottal k (ɡ) [dʒ] Nasals m Fricative [f] Tap [s] ɲ [ʂ] ŋ [h] Trill Central ʋ approximant Lateral approximant ɳ l j 2.3.2 Tamil Vowel Phonemes Modern Tamil has five distinct vowels /i e a o u/ which are also distinctive for length, and two diphthongs [ai] and [aʊ]: 18 Table 3: Tamil Vowel Phonemes Front Mid long short High iː Mid eː long short i uː u e oː o aː Low Diphthongs long Back short a ai, au Again, the status of the diphthongs as underlyingly contrastive is disputed with some accounts arguing that [ai] should not be considered as a phoneme when we consider roots of CVC structure like kai, pai, vai to those with CVVC structure kaay, pay, vaay, with [ai] a graphic adaptation of –ay (Zvelebil & Vacek 1970: 121). Annamalai and Steever (1998: 101) however argue that they are in fact phonemes because they have the length of short vowels. [aʊ] also features marginally in the language in words like paurɳami ‗full moon day‘. 2.3.3 Tamil Syllable Structure and Phonotactics In this section we discuss briefly the syllable structure of Tamil followed by its phonotactics. The previous study on the Kanniyakumari dialect by Christdas (1988) is the most authoritative theoretical discussion on this area and the reader is advised to refer to it for specific details. Even though it focuses on a particular dialect group, most of the generalizations apply to the main language. According to Christdas (1998: 211) the core syllable types that occur in the underlying representation are: 19 a) CV V b) CVC VC c) CVCC VCC The vowel that occurs in the syllable can either be long (VV) or short (V). We can thus represent the long vowels which occur as a geminate, and the short vowel as a single V. The status of the diphthong in Tamil is contentious. In the Kanniyakumari dialect, there are no diphthongs and Zvelebil & Vacek (1970: 121) argues that they are in fact vowel plus glide combinations represented orthographically as diphthongs; Annamalai and Steever however claim that they have the duration of a short vowel and it is represented by two vowel qualities dominated by one V slot: a) Short V b) Long V V V V a a c) diphthongs V a i For consonant clusters, the geminates and homorganic nasal stop sequences are all doubly linked like a long vowel but with some differences; geminates are linked at the root node sharing all features, while homorganic nasal stop sequences are linked at the place node (Christdas 1988: 217): 20 a) Geminate Consonants C b) Homorganic Nasal Stop Sequence C C C Root Node . . . SL Node . . . Place Node . . Both geminates and hormorganic nasal stop sequences are syllabified across syllable boundaries. Restrictions on the occurrence of consonant phonemes are often stated in the literature as morpheme structure constraints on the kind of segments that may occur in a certain position. For instance, Asher (1985: 258) states that only the phonemes /k c t p m n ʋ j/ occur in word initial position with /r/ and /l/ are also found accidentally in word-initial position in a few loan words but this is generally avoided by epenthesis of an initial vowel, and Annamalai & Steever (1998: 102) reports that alveolars and retroflexes do not occur in initial position and initial retroflexes are lexically restricted to native onomatopoeia. Christdas (1988: 271) however states that there is a segment structure constraint operating at the stem-initial position that retroflexed consonants and alveolar stops do not occur stem initially. In word-final positions consonant phonemes that can occur are /ɳ m j ɾ l ɻ ɭ n/. All the consonants may occur in medial position. Consonant clusters cannot occur in word initial and final positions in the native grammar. All the consonant phonemes except for /ɾ/ and /ɻ/ can occur as 21 geminates in medial positions. Other than the geminates which occur in medial positions, there are six homorganic nasal + stop sequences: ŋk, ɲc, ɳʈ, nr, nt and mp. Other two consonant clusters which occur though in most cases at morpheme boundaries are ɳk, ɳp, nk, np, ʈk, ʈc, ʈp, rk, rc, rp, ɾk, ɾp, lk, lp, lv, ɭk, ɭv, ɻʋ. Triconsonantal clusters are mainly geminates kk, cc, t t, pp and nt preceded by r or ɻ. (Asher 1985: 258-259). Sonorant geminates do not follow long vowels and there are no rhotic geminates, and these are stated as sequence structure constraints in Christdas (1988). For vowels, all vowels and dipthongs can occur in word-initially, but in wordfinal positions, /e o au/ never occur. Again, this is stated as a segment structure constraint barring /e o/ from occurring in non-initial syllable of a stem. 2.4 English Phonology In this section we deal with the English phonological system, starting with its consonant inventory, followed by its vowel inventory, syllable structure, and phonotactics. We take the British variety as reference because of its long standing relation to India; however, it is possible that American varieties can be possible sources for adaptation. We will not pursue this line of research due to space constraints. 2.4.1 English Consonant Phonemes The standard description of Received Pronunciation (RP) consonant system comprises of 24 phonemes as follows: 22 Table 4: English Consonant Phonemes Bilabial Labio- Dental Alveolar PostPalatoPalatal Velar Glottal dental Alveolar Alveolar Nasal m n ŋ Plosive pb td kg Affricate tʃ dʒ Fricative fv θ ð ʃ ʒ s z Approx r Lateral (Approx) h j w l (Based on Cruttenden 2008: 157, with modifications) 2.4.2 English Vowel Phonemes The respective vowel charts of English are as follows: Table 5: English Monophthongal Vowel Phonemes Front High Mid Low long iː Mid short ɪ e æ Back long short ɜː ə ʌ long uː ɔː ɑː short ʊ ɒ Table 6: English Diphthongal Vowel Phonemes Closing /eɪ/ Centring /ɪə/ /aɪ/ /ɔɪ/ /əʊ/ /eə/ /aʊ/ /ʊə/ (Based on Cruttenden 2008: 91-92, with modifications) There are twelve basic vowels in English which can be differentiated in terms of tense-lax opposition which translates into length differences. Unlike Tamil which 23 has only two diphthongs, English has eight of them. Additionally, English has triphthongs which can be realized as two syllables, or have its middle vowel lost while having the first vowel lengthened, or it can undergo simplification. Table 7: English Triphthongal Vowels As two syllables Triphthong Loss of mid-element Further simplified as [aɪ.ə] [aɪə] [aːə] [aː] [ɑʊ.ə] [ɑʊə] [ɑːə] [ɑː] (Based on Cruttenden 2008: 145-148, with modifications) 2.4.3 English Syllable Structure and Phonotactics The syllable structure of English is much debated in the literature with differing analyses on its exact size. These debates are not directly relevant to our purposes, hence we refer the interested reader to Duanmu (2009) who summarizes them concisely and argues for a new theory of the syllable. In most accounts, the English syllable structure is (C)(C)(C)VX(C)(C)(C) with X representing either a vowel or a consonant. When X is a vowel, we have a long vowel or a diphthong, and /ŋ/ cannot follow. Onsets and codas are optional in English and a minimal well-formed syllable comprises of the nucleus. Stress is contrastive, which is reflected in the syllable structure through heavy and light syllables, with the former having two X-slots in its rhyme, and the latter having one X-slot in its rhyme (Giegerich 1992:146): 24 a) Heavy Syllable b) Light Syllable Syllable (Onset) Syllable Rhyme X (Onset) Rhyme X X For the onset, up to three consonant phonemes can occur. In single segment onsets /ŋ/ does not occur, and /ʒ/ which is a marginal phoneme in English occurs only in foreign words. Two-consonant onset clusters can be grouped into two types. The first type comprises of one of the following fifteen consonant phonemes /p t k b d g m n l f v θ s ʃ h/ plus one of the following approximant /l r w j/, while the second type comprises of /s/ followed by one of the following consonants /p t k m n f v/ (Cruttenden 2008: 254-255). A sample list of words comprising of two consonant onset clusters from Roach (2003: 72-74) is as follows: Table 8: Two Consonantal Onset Clusters Beginning with /s/ S Plus p t k f m n l w j r spɪn stɪk skɪn sfɪə smel snəʊ slɪp swɪŋ sjuː srɪndʒ 25 Table 9: Two Consonantal Onset Clusters Comprising of C+ Approximant p l r pleɪ preɪ t tjuːn kwɪk kjuː kraɪ b blæk brɪŋ dwel djuː gwen gjuːlz gluː grɪn f flaɪ fraɪ slɪp ʃ bjuːti drɪp g s pjɔː twɪn kleɪ θ j treɪ k d w fjuː θrəʊ θwɔːt θjuː srɪndʒ swɪm sjuː ʃruː ʃwɑː h hjuːdʒ v vjuː m mjuːz n njuːz l ljuːd All three-consonant onset clusters begin with /s/, and the patterning is similar to two-consonant onset clusters with /s/ followed by /p/, /t/, or /k/ then one of the approximants /l/, /r/, /j/ or /w/. A sample list from Roach (2003: 73) is as follows: p S plus l r spleɪ spreɪ spjuː strɪŋ stjuː t k skriːn skləˈrəʊ.sɪs 26 w skwiːk j skjʊə For the coda, up to four consonant phonemes can occur. The English coda can contain more segment clusters because of suffixation. In single segment codas, /r, h, j, w/ do not occur, /ŋ/ occurs only after the group of lax vowels /ɪ æ ʌ ɒ/. Twoconsonant coda clusters can be grouped into two types: the first type consisting of a consonant plus one of the following coronal segments /t d s z θ/ due to suffixation, and the second type consisting of a nasal, lateral, or /s/ plus another consonant (Cruttenden 2008: 256). Some examples from Roach (2003: 73) are as follows: Table 10: Two Consonantal Coda Clusters Formed Through Suffixation Suffixes Words -s bet -z -t -d -θ bets Suffixed to bed bedz back bækt bag bægd eight eɪtθ Table 11: Two Consonantal Coda Cluster p m k bʌmp n ŋ t bent followed by bæŋk l belt ɑː sk s 27 Three-consonant clusters similar to two-consonant ones can be grouped into two types: the first group consist of the second type of CC clusters undergoing suffixation by the coronal segments, while the second group consist of a single consonant coda undergoing suffixation twice. Four-consonant clusters are rare in the language and they are CCC clusters formed through suffixation, for instance prompts, exempts /-mpts/, glimpsed, mulcts, sculpts, twelfths, thousandths, texts, sixths. 2.5 Comparison between English and Tamil After looking at the phonological system of the two languages we find that there are many differences in the phonemic inventory, syllable structure, and phonotactics of the two languages. Firstly, the inventory sizes of no two different languages are the same as it is with the world‘s languages. English utilizes more vowel and consonantal contrasts compared with Tamil. The English consonant inventory comprises of 24 phonemes while Tamil‘s core phonology utilizes 15 to 17 phonemes. However, if we factor in the loan phonology component of Tamil, we find that its inventory size is bigger. Thus, when English words are borrowed into Tamil, the phoneme to phoneme mapping may be phonetically similar as Tamil is well equipped to absorb the English consonantal contrasts. Additionally, voicing is extensively used in English to multiply the number of contrasts, but it is not the case in Tamil except when one factors in the loan phonology of Tamil due to influence from other languages such as Hindi and English which possess the property of voicing. 28 In the vowel system we find that English has tense/lax distinctions which are allophonically manifested as length distinctions and it has 12 basic vowels. In contrast Tamil has only 10 basic vowels but contrast for length. English also has several diphthongs and triphthongs while Tamil only have two, /ai/ and /au/ which are marginally used. Based on this, we must ask the question of how the phonemes of English will be mapped into the Tamil system given that they are dissimilar systems and how the additional phonemes in English will be adapted in Tamil, and whether the extant loan component in Tamil will be involved in the process of mapping. On the level of syllable structure, English allows very complex onsets and codas while Tamil does not allow complex onsets but marginally allows complex codas. Tamil codas are usually linked to the onsets and are either first half of a geminate, or a homorganic nasal stop sequence, or a liquid and the first half of a geminate. Given the complexity of the English syllable structure, how will Tamil adapt or ‗reduce‘ it to match its simpler structure. On the prosodic level, English has distinctive stress while Tamil has pitch accent (Christdas 1988). It is shown in the literature that prosodic patterns of the source language can be adapted or ignored in the loan phonology. Thus when these two languages with differing prosodic patterns interact, what will be the product of this interaction. Will English stress or allophonic length differences be mapped onto Tamil? How will reduced vowels and syllabic consonants be represented in Tamil? Will Tamil pitch accent patterns be imposed onto English borrowings? 29 2.6 Data The source of the data for this dissertation is a loanword dictionary titled ―A Dictionary of English loan-words in Modern Tamil: Contributions towards a Modern Tamil-English Dictionary‖ compiled by Chandran Tucker. The loanwords in the loan dictionary are from three sources: One, popular periodicals covering a period of six months: ananda vikatan, kalki, kalai makal, kumutam, rani, Tinamani Katir; two, daily newspapers covering a period of a month: Malai Marasu, Tina Mani, Tina Tanti; three, two thousand pages of modern novels and short stories (Tucker 1986). The data presented in the dictionary comprises of English words and their respective Tamil forms written in Tamil orthography. The pronunciations of the English words are pasted from Cambridge Dictionary Online (2010), while the Tamil forms are transcribed into their underlying forms in IPA. One important point to note is that Tamil orthography does not have voiced counterparts of the consonant phonemes, hence they use the same orthographic character as the voiceless ones, and I have represented them in the data following as closely to the orthography which will not trouble a careful reader. The size of the data is huge, comprising of 3601 entries with some repetitions. These repetitions are either variant pronunciations of a word, or the ―suffixing‖ of a Tamil verb to an English word to form a new word. 30 2.7 Summary To summarize, we have examined and compared in detail the phonological systems of the two languages. Given the dissimilarity, we have proposed some interesting interactions which may emerge. Also we have elaborated on the data used in this paper. In the next chapter, we shall examine in detail the phoneme mapping patterns between the two languages. 31 CHAPTER THREE Phoneme Mapping 3.1 Introduction As shown previously in Chapter One using data from Japanese (Kato 2006), phonological adaptation of foreign loanwords involves the mapping of phonemes on the segmental level, the repair of phonotactic structures which are illicit in the native language, and the resolution of prosodic differences between the two languages, consequently producing an adapted form as similar as possible to the source language and native language at the same time. In this chapter, we begin our investigation of Tamil loan phonology by probing into the phoneme substitution patterns reserving discussion of phonotactic and prosodic repair to the later chapters. Three possible consequences exist in the process of mapping segments between loan and native language: 1) Phoneme from the loan language is matched with an exact phoneme which also exists in the native language 2) Phoneme is matched to a similar phoneme when an exact match is missing 3) Phoneme from the loan language is deleted. 32 In the borrowing of English loans into Tamil we observe that segments are never deleted despite the differences between the segmental inventories of the two systems. For instance, English inter-dental fricatives /θ/ and /ð/ do not have exact corresponding segments in Tamil, but they are adapted as dental plosives /t/ and /d/. The structure of this chapter is as follows: in section 3.2 we examine the mapping of consonantal phonemes; in section 3.3 the mapping of vowel phonemes; subsequently in section 3.4 we account for these patterns and we summarize our findings in section 3.5. 3.2 Consonantal Phonemes Mapping In this section we examine the consonantal phoneme mapping patterns from English to Tamil, discussing the faithful and deviant mappings and the possible reasons leading to such adaptations, and the context of the borrowing. The order which we do so is as follows: plosives, nasals, fricatives, affricates, laterals and rhotics, and lastly glides. We base our discussion of the mapping patterns primarily on word onset positions, because consonants that appear elsewhere are usually reduced or lenited variants and form a subset of these (Clements 2009: 24) bringing in patterns in other positions only when necessary. 3.2.1 Plosives English and Tamil differ greatly in their inventory of plosive sounds in two aspects: first, English plosives possess voicing distinction whereas Tamil does not; 33 second, even though Tamil does not have voicing distinction, its plosives have more place distinctions compared to English. Firstly, in terms of voicing, English productively utilizes the feature of voicing to multiply the number of possible contrasts for its plosives by two thereby supplementing its place contrasts. Tamil however does not possess voicing distinction and its plosives are solely differentiated from each other through its five places of articulation. Voiced plosives are still present in Tamil in the surface inventory, arising in intervocalic and post-nasal contexts as part of its allophonic processes which is usually accompanied with lenition of place contrasts (Christdas 1998). In terms of place distinctions, we find that English plosives contrast for three articulatory places, namely, velar, alveolar and labial, whereas Tamil plosives contrast for five articulatory places, namely, velar, palatal, palatal-alveolar, dental and labial. There is therefore a certain degree of overlap in terms of the places of articulation for the plosive inventory of the two languages with the velar and labial features being utilized by both languages. Based on the above we find that there is a mismatch in the plosive inventories of the two languages in the number of segments, and the kind of features they utilize for their distinctions, hence some adjustments will have to take place when English plosives are adapted into Tamil. We predict that plosives which are very similar are directly mapped in the course of loan adaptation, hence, the velar, and labial plosives of English, /k/ and /p/ are mapped to their counterparts in Tamil. Alveolar plosives however do not have 34 exact counterparts in Tamil and no such mapping can apply. Based on prior studies on the similarity of the CV transitions of t/ʈ (Dave 1976; Stevens & Blumstein 1975) for Gujarati and Hindi, and observations raised by Steriade (2001:225) that release related cues including CV transitions are misleading as both apicals are released from the same constriction point, we predict that alveolar plosives will be adapted as palatalalveolar (retroflexed) plosives. For English voiced plosives which do not exist in the underlying inventory of Tamil, we predict that they will also be adapted into Tamil as voiced segments by appealing to four reasons: firstly, voiced plosives exists in the surface inventory of Tamil and speakers are therefore to a certain extent able to differentiate between voiced and voiceless plosives; secondly, if we assume that most of the borrowings were done by bilinguals, they would have acquired this contrast from English; thirdly, based on the 317 languages sampled in the UCLA Phonological Segment Inventory Database (UPSID henceforth), there is a universal tendency for languages to have two series of stops (more than 51.1%) which are differentiated by voicing (88.9% distinguished by VOT contrasts)(Maddieson 2009: 39), hence it is not surprising that Tamil would have acquired voicing distinctions to accommodate additional new lexical items from English as there is a trend for languages to utilize VOT differences for stop differentiation; and fourthly, throughout the history of Tamil language, there has been continuous contact with languages which utilize extensive VOT contrasts such as Sanskrit in Middle Tamil (Meenakshisundaran 1965: 145-146), and Indic languages such as Hindi, Bengali, and Punjabi in modern times. Even though Tamil has resisted adapting 35 the inventory or features of these languages when interacting with them, some form of influence would have occurred in terms of perception of foreign contrast in contact situations, and within the loanword lexicon, increasing a new form of contrast is one of the best strategies to accommodate new items. Other languages of the Dravidian family such as Malayalam, Telugu, and Kannada have already acquired voicing contrasts in their contact with Indo-Aryan Indic Languages. Lastly, the palatal plosive /c/ does not have any counterparts in English and we predict that this segment will not be utilized to accommodate any of the English plosives. Our predictions are attested by the data given in Table 12. We observe that /k/ and /p/ mappings are as we predicted, and the alveolar plosives are mapped onto the retroflexed plosives of Tamil. For voicing, English voiced plosives do not pose a problem to the Tamil system and they are adapted seamlessly, thus, we have the six resultant plosives in Tamil loan phonology of English: /k/, /g/, /ʈ/, /ɖ/, /p/, and /b/. Table 12: Plosive Adaptation Input k g Output English Surface Form Tamil Graph Surface Form cup kʌp kap kap king kɪŋ kiŋ kiŋ coat kəʊt kooʈʈu kooʈʈu class klɑːs klaas klaas gum gʌm kam gam gate geɪt keeʈ geeʈ k g 36 t d p b ʈ ɖ guide gaɪd kaiʈu gaiɖu gram græm kiɾaam giɾaam tax tæks ʈaaks ʈaaks town taʊn ʈaʋun ʈaʋun toys tɔɪz ʈaajs ʈaajs tune tjuːn ʈjuun ʈjuun dance dɑːns ʈaans ɖaans dear dɪər ʈijaɾ ɖijaɾ deal dɪəl ʈiil ɖiil drum drʌm ʈiɾam ɖiɾam pump pʌmp pamp pamp paste peɪst peesʈ peesʈ pipe paɪp paip paip plate pleɪt piɭeeʈ piɭeeʈ bum bʌm pam bam board bɔːd pooɾʈu booɾʈu book bʊk puk buk block blɒk pɭaak bɭaak p b Intervocalically, single voiceless English plosives are adapted as geminates in Tamil. This oddity in adaptation may have arisen because single plosives in the native grammar of Tamil undergo lenition and voicing in such contexts, hence to preserve the voicing contrast, while at the same time fulfilling intervocalic voicing, one strategy is to geminate the plosives (Mohanan & Mohanan 2003 observes a similar pattern in Malayalee English). There are however conflicting instances 37 where voiceless plosives are adapted as singletons in the data and we suspect these may be orthographic representations of English words and not actual adaptations. For instance, for the word with surface representation [əˈkaʊnt] is rendered as or in Tamil orthography and based on an informant‘s verification, we are able to ascertain that the resulting realization of the voiceless plosive as a voiced segment for the former form is not attested. Thus there is a possibility that singleton voiceless segments in intervocalic positions could be due to orthography or the relaxation of rules of intervocalic voicing. Singleton voiced plosives are adapted with no differences and voiced geminates are adapted as voiced geminates. Table 13 illustrates this: Table 13: Plosives in intervocalic contexts Input Output English Surface Form account əˈkaʊnt k k kk g g against ʈ t d ʈʈ atom bomb əˈgenst ˈæt.əm bɒm Tamil Graph Surface Form akauɳʈ *agauɳʈ akkaʋuɳʈ akkaʋuɳʈ akeensʈ ageensʈ aaʈam paam *aaʈam paam aaʈʈam paam aaʈʈam paam ɖ to audit ˈɔː.dɪt aaʈiʈ paɳɳu aaɖiʈ paɳɳu ɖɖ bidding ˈbɪd.ɪŋ piʈʈiŋ piɖɖiŋ p disappoint ˌdɪs.əˈpɔɪnt ʈicapaajinʈ *ɖisapaajinʈ pp to oppose əˈpəʊz appoos paɳɳu appoos paɳɳu b abortion əˈbɔː.ʃən apaaɾʂan abaaɾʂan bb rubber ˈrʌb.ər ɾappaɾ ɾabbaɾ p b 38 Additionally, a similar observation is made by Mohanan (2003: 16-17) in Malayalam English (derived from Malayalam a language belonging to the Dravidian family like Tamil) that there is a phenomenon of word internal germination of intervocalic voiceless plosives: a. bakes [beeks] bake eggs [beek egs] baker [beekkar] b. gallop [gæælap] gallop again [gæælap egeen ] galloping [gæælappiŋ] c. leaped [liipɖ] leap outward [liip auʈwəəɖ] leaping [liippiŋ] d. eats [iits] eat it up [iit it ap] eating [iittiŋ] This phenomenon is similar to the germination of intervocalic voiceless stops of Tamil, and Mohanan (2003) observes that speakers of Malayalee English also transliterate English words based on these principles, systematically using double consonant characters for intervocalic voiceless stops (as in groping or reaper). This is in contrast to non-intervocalic voiceless stops (as in pen and reaps), and intervocalic voiced stops (as in robing and liberal). 3.2.2 Nasals Similar to the plosive inventories of the two languages, the nasal inventories of both languages differ in the number of place features they utilize; English distinguishes the velar, alveolar, and labial places of articulation for its nasals, whereas Tamil distinguishes the velar, palatal, palatalalveolar, alveolar, dental, and labial places of articulation. There is again a mismatch in the number of segments in the respective inventories with Tamil having a surplus of segments and utilizing more places of articulation. Voicing which is distinctive in English 39 plosives and Tamil loan phonology plays no part here as the nasals in both languages do not contrast for voicing. For the English nasals, only the labial and alveolar nasals contrast in onset and coda positions, with the velar nasal /ŋ/ occurring only in codas. For Tamil, phonemic palatal nasal [ɲ] occurs marginally and only in the onset, and in other contexts which it occurs, it is the first half of a hormorganic nasal stop sequence hence its distribution is predictable. The velar nasal /ŋ/, retroflexed nasal /ɳ/ and alveolar nasal /n/ also occur as the first half of a homorganic nasal stop sequence. The dental nasal /n/ however occurs only in word initial position. Based on the above, we predict that English nasals /m/, /n/, and /ŋ/ will be mapped to their similar counterparts in Tamil. The dental, palatal and palatal-alveolar nasals of Tamil may also surface when nasal stop sequences are borrowed from English. Our predictions about the mapping patterns are borne out by the data in Table 14. As predicted, /m/ and /ŋ/ are mapped onto their respective counterparts in Tamil. The mapping of /n/ however has more variability and seem to be dependent on the phonotactics of Tamil or the English input; in word initial positions it is always mapped to a dental nasal; while in other positions, it is mapped to the alveolar nasal. It can also be mapped to the retroflexed and palatal nasals of Tamil in homorganic nasal stop sequences only which may be evidence that nasal assimilation to place of a stop is perceived by speakers and are borrowed into Tamil or they may produce such sequences controlled by their production 40 grammar. As mentioned previously in chapter two, the status of the alveolar nasal and dental nasal as phonemes in Tamil is disputed. We will not delve deeper into discussion here about its status anymore but only note that /n/ when borrowed into Tamil surfaces as either a dental nasal or alveolar nasal. Table 14: Nasal Adaptation Input m Output ɳ ɲ ŋ Surface Form Tamil Graph Surface Form mug mʌg mak mag model ˈmɒd.əl maaʈal maaɖal meter ˈmiː.tər miiʈʈaɾ miiʈʈaɾ madam ˈmæd.əm meeʈam meeɖam nut nʌt nat nat neat niːt niiʈ niiʈ new njuː nijuu nijuu night naɪt naiʈ naiʈ underline ˌʌn.dəˈlaɪn aɳʈaɾliin aɳɖaɾliin sound saʊnd saʋuɳʈu saʋuɳɖu brand brænd piɾaaɳʈ piɾaaɳɖ phone fəʊn fooɳ fooɳ engine ˈen.dʒɪn eɲcin eɲcin queen kwiːn kʋiiɲ kʋiiɲ lounge laʊndʒ lauɲc lauɲc puncture ˈpʌŋk.tʃər paɲcaɾ paɲcaɾ trunk trʌŋk ʈɾaŋk ʈɾaŋk m n n English ŋ 41 angle ˈæŋ.gl aaŋkiɭ aaŋkiɭ king kɪŋ kiŋ kiŋ bank bæŋk paaŋki paaŋki 3.2.3 Fricatives Similar to the plosive and nasal inventories of the two languages, the fricative inventories of both languages differ; English has nine fricatives /f v θ ð s z ʃ ʒ h/, and they contrast in five distinct places of articulation, namely labiodentals, interdental, alveolar, palatal-alveolar, and glottal, and voicing is contrastive for a subset of these fricatives. Tamil however has lesser number of fricatives; four to be exact and they are /f s ʂ h/. These segments are drawn in from foreign phonology usually of Sanskrit origin and rendered in grantha orthography or with an aytam attached in the case of /f/ which is borrowed from English. The character for the palatal stop /c/ is sometimes used to represent /s/ when grantha letters are dispreferred and is also realized as [s] in intervocalic lenited contexts. The four places of articulation of Tamil fricatives are labiodental, alveolar, and palatalalveolar for its retroflexed fricative. Again we have a mismatch in the number of segments and the different features they utilize to express these contrasts. We predict that phonetically similar segments available in both languages will be mapped directly. /f/ maps to [f], /s/ to [s], and /h/ to [h], while segments which do not have exact matches may be matched to other phonetically similar segments (Eckman 1981, Flege 1987). 42 Examining Table 15 we find that once again our predictions for the above segments are proven. /f/ maps to /f/ or /p/ dependent on whether foreign segments are allowed in the phonology, and /s/ to /s/, and /h/ to /h/. Other than the direct mappings, the remaining segments that do not have direct correspondents are matched to other segments which are similar. θ and ð are replaced not by fricatives but by the phonetically similar dental plosives /t/ and /d/ of Tamil which differ with θ and ð in the feature value of [cont]. /v/ is mapped to the labiodentals approximant [ʋ]of Tamil, ʃ and ʒ are both mapped to the retroflexed fricative /ʂ/, while /z/ is mapped to [dʒ]. Table 15: Fricative Adaptation Input Output f English Surface Form Tamil Graph Surface Form fees fiːz fiis fiis phone fəʊn fooɳ fooɳ final ˈfaɪ.nəl fainal fainal fees fiːz piis piis phone fəʊn poon poon final ˈfaɪ.nəl painal painal varnish ˈvɑː.nɪʃ ʋaaɾniʂ ʋaaɾniʂ van væn ʋaan ʋaan vitamin ˈvɪt.ə.mɪn ʋiʈʈamin ʋiʈʈamin thief θiːf tiif tiif through θruː tɾuu tɾuu thinker ˈθɪŋ.kər tiŋkaɾ tiŋkaɾ that's ðæts taʈs daʈs f p v θ ð ʋ t d 43 s z ʃ ʒ wɪðˈdrɔː ʋitʈɾaa ʋidʈɾaa mother ˈmʌð.ər mataɾ madaɾ support səˈpɔːt sappooɾʈ sappooɾʈ saw sɔː caa saa zero ˈzɪə.rəʊ dʒiiɾoo dʒiiɾoo visit ˈvɪz.ɪt ʋiciʈ ʋisiʈ shop ʃɒp ʂaap ʂaap station ˈsteɪ.ʃən sʈeeʂan sʈeeʂan English ˈɪŋ.glɪʃ iŋkiliʂ iŋkiliʂ television ˈtel.ɪ.vɪʒ.ən ʈeliʋiʂan ʈeliʋiʂan provision prəˈvɪʒ.ən pɾoʋiʂan pɾoʋiʂan exposure ɪkˈspəʊ.ʒər ekspoosar ekspoosar house haʊs haʋus haʋus rehearse rɪˈhɜːs ɾikaɾs ɾixaɾs s dʒ ʂ ʂ s h withdraw h Again we note that deletion as an adaptation strategy is not utilized especially in the onset position in borrowings hence a phonetically similar match must be found for segments from English even if they do not have exact correspondents in Tamil. 3.2.4 Affricates Like the fricative segment inventory, affricates are marginal segments in Tamil and exist in its core phonology as phones, not as phonemes. [dʒ] and [tʃ] are allophonic realizations of underlying /c/, and /dʒ/ is phonemic only for words borrowed into Tamil. English however has two affricates /tʃ/ and /dʒ/. Because Tamil has surface realizations of these affricates and utilize /dʒ/ to code existing 44 loanword contrasts, we predict that these segments will be mapped to their corresponding counterparts when English words are borrowed into Tamil. As we predicted, for the majority of the mappings, /tʃ/ is mapped to [tʃ] and /dʒ/ to [dʒ] when English loans containing these segments are borrowed into Tamil. However, they are some unexpected mappings, /tʃ/ is mapped to [ʈ]/ in and . One possible reason is that the borrowing is based partially on orthography or reading pronunciation hence words which have are pronounced with [ʈ]. Table 16: Affricate Adaptation Input Output English Surface Form Tamil Graph Surface Form tʃ tʃ chair tʃeər cceeɾ tʃeeɾ stretcher ˈstretʃ.ər sʈɾeʈccaɾ sʈɾeʈccaɾ church tʃɜːtʃ caɾc tʃaɾtʃ christian ˈkrɪs.tʃən kirisʈian kirisʈian question ˈkwes.tʃən kuʋesʈijan kuʋesʈijan jug dʒʌg dʒak dʒʌg gin dʒɪn dʒin dʒin charge tʃɑːdʒ caaɾdʒ caaɾdʒ detergent dɪˈtɜː.dʒənt ʈiʈaɾdʒenʈ ʈiʈaɾdʒenʈ ʈ dʒ dʒ 3.2.5 Laterals and Rhotics Tamil has more laterals and rhotics as compared to English; Tamil has four segments in this category /l ɭ ɾ r/ whereas English only has two, /l/ and /r/. The 45 Tamil laterals and rhotics contrast in terms of place, /l/ is alveolar and /ɭ/ is retroflexed, while /ɾ/ is dental and /r/ alveolar, whereas English only has /l/ which is alveolar and /r/ which is alveolar or post-alveolar in RP. Given that Tamil has more than necessary segments to suitably adapt the English segments, we predict that Tamil will have no problems adapting them and that /l/ will be mapped to [l] and /r/ to [r]. Looking at Table 17 we observe that our predictions are not borne out. Rather than minimally utilizing the segments /l/ and /r/ to adapt English segments, we find that instead all Tamil laterals and rhotics are utilized here. /l/ is adapted as [l] in word initial and coda positions whereas it is adapted as [ɭ] in complex onsets (not word initial) and in coda positions. /r/ again follows this similar pattern where it is adapted as [ɾ] in word initial or coda positions, or as [r] in word internal positions. Recall the discussion in chapter two about the pre-OT morpheme structure constraints which hold in Tamil. Only a restricted set of segments can occur in word initial positions, and this pattern is observed when words are adapted into Tamil. 46 Table 17: Lateral and Rhotic Adaptation Input Output l English Surface Form Tamil Graph Surface Form luck lʌk lak lak appeal əˈpiːl appiil appiil uncle ˈʌŋ.kl aŋkiɭ aŋgiɭ applause əˈplɔːz apɭaas apɭaas rum rʌm ɾam ɾam rate reɪt ɾeeʈ ɾeeʈ writer ˈraɪ.tər ɾaiʈʈaɾ ɾaiʈʈaɾ christmas ˈkrɪs.məs kirismas kirismas l ɭ ɾ r r 3.2.6 Glides English like most of the languages in the world have the glides /j/ and /w/ whereas Tamil has /j/ but lacks the labial-velar approximant /w/ and instead have the labiodental approximant /ʋ/. Hence words like and which are distinguishable in English are indistinguishable in Tamil. Based on the above we predict that English glides /j/ and /w/ will be mapped to [j] and to [ʋ]. We find that our predictions are attested by data in the table below. /j/ is mapped to [j] while /w/ is mapped to [ʋ]. Even though /w/ differs from [ʋ] in exact place of articulation, they both share the similarity of using the labial features and they are both different in their places of secondary articulation; [w] is velar, while [ʋ] is dental. 47 Table 18: Glide Adaptation Input Output English Surface Form Tamil Graph Surface Form w ʋ wire waɪər ojaɾ ʋojaɾ ʋ wire waɪər ʋajaɾ ʋajaɾ j unit ˈjuː.nɪt juuniʈ juuniʈ yard jɑːd jaaɾʈ jaaɾʈ review rɪˈvjuː ɾeʋijuu ɾeʋijuu j 3.3 Vowel Phonemes Mapping In this section we examine the vowel phonemes mapping between English and Tamil. We first begin with single quality vowels followed by those which have more than one quality (diphthongs and triphthongs). The inventory of basic vowels for Tamil and English is reproduced as below: Table 19: Tamil Vowel Phonemes Front Mid long short High ii Mid ee long Back long short i uu u e oo o Low short aa Diphthongs a ai, au Table 20: English Monophthongal Vowel Phonemes Front High Mid Low long iː Mid short ɪ e æ Back long short ɜː ə ʌ 48 long uː ɔː ɑː short ʊ ɒ To recap what we have gone through in Chapter two, we observe that Tamil has five distinct vowels and each of them can be further differentiated by length distinctions giving ten vowels (Keane 2004:114). English however has slightly more vowel contrasts and similar to Tamil distinguishes them for length. The basic articulatory positions for the vowels of the two languages are similar and there is overlap in some of the vowels. English vowel qualities which Tamil do not possess are /ʌ/, /ɑː/, /ɒ/, /ɔː/, /ɜː/, [ə], and /æ/. Of interest here is the English reduced vowel schwa [ə] which occurs in non-stressed positions where vowel contrasts are suspended and its resultant mapping in Tamil. Based on the above observations, we predict that vowels again will be mapped on the principles of phonetic similarity: direct mapping for vowels with correspondents in Tamil and mapping to similar ones for those which do not. Looking at table 21 below we observe that the mapping of vowels is much more complicated than that of consonants: Table 21: Long Monophthong Adaptation Input Output iː uː Stats English Surface Form Tamil Graph Surface Form appeal əˈpiːl appiil appiil 219/280 easy ˈiː.zi iidʒi iidʒi 78.2% screen skriːn skɾiin skɾiin east iːst iisʈ iisʈ rule ruːl ɾuul ɾuul revenue ˈrev.ən.juː ɾeʋanjuu ɾeʋanjuu proof pruːf pɾuuf pɾuuf Ii 181/219 uu 82.6% 49 ɜː ɾeʋijuu ɾeʋijuu attorney əˈtɜː.ni aʈaaɾni aʈaaɾni 141/141 advertisement ədˈvɜː.tɪs.mənt aʈʋaɾʈaismenʈ aʈʋaɾʈaismenʈ work wɜːk ʋoɾk ʋoɾk mercury ˈmɜː.kjʊ.ri meɾkuɾi meɾkuɾi 84/251 auction ˈɔːk.ʃən aakʂan aakʂan 82/251 order ˈɔː.dər aaɾʈaɾ aaɾɖaɾ ooɾ 77/251 support səˈpɔːt cappooɾʈ cappooɾʈ Aa 84/198 advance ədˈvɑːnt s aʈʋaans aɖʋaans aaɾ 112/198 arts ɑːts aaɾʈs aaɾʈs Ee 2/198 sample ˈsɑːm.pl ceempiɭ ceempiɭ Aa ɑː rɪˈvjuː Vɾ 100% ɔː review aaɾ We find that to a large extent our predictions about the vowel mappings are borne out in Table 21. English Long monopthongal vowels are mapped overwhelmingly to phonetically similar Tamil counterparts with a few deviant exceptions mostly due to influence of orthography: [iː] maps to [ii], [uː] to [uu]; [ɜː] to various different vowels and has an additional [ɾ] due to orthographic influence; [ɔː] to either [aa], [aaɾ] or [ooɾ]; and [ɑː] to either [aa], [aaɾ] or [ee]. The mappings of [ɔː] and [ɑː] may be due to similarity in terms of features: both these vowels are back vowels similar to the Tamil correspondent. Another possible pattern that emerges here is the dominance of mapping of vowel to vowel quality [a] which may imply that it is the most common and unmarked vowel within Tamil. We now examine Table 22 to observe whether these hypotheses are true for short monophthongs: 50 Table 22: Short Monophthong Adaptation Input Output Stats English Surface Form Tamil Graph Surface Form 832/962 income ˈɪn.kʌm inkam inkam Christmas ˈkrɪs.məs kirismas kirismas exact ɪgˈzækt ekcaakʈ ekcaakʈ correspondent ˌkɒr.ɪˈspɒn.dənt kaɾaspaanʈanʈ kaɾaspaanɖanʈ pɾeekfaasʈ bɾeekfaasʈ kaaɾpuɾeeʈʈaɾ kaaɾpuɾeeʈʈaɾ kanceʂan kanceʂan lenʈ lenɖ ˌen.dʒɪˈnɪər ekspraʂan ekspraʂan ˈredʒ.ɪ.stər indʒinijaɾ indʒinijaɾ ˈkwes.tʃən ɾidʒisʈaɾ kosʈijan ɾidʒisʈaɾ kosʈijan I ɪ orthographic and harmony effects 130/962 ˈbrek.fəst breakfast ˌkɑː.bəˈret.ər carburetor ee 6/532 e 442/532 a 68/532 i 13/532 o 3/532 kənˈseʃ.ən concession lend lend e ɪkˈspreʃ.ən expression engineer register question æ ə a 35/429 accident ˈæk.sɪ.dənt akciʈenʈ akciʈenʈ aa 348/429 actor ˈæk.tər aakʈaɾ aakʈaɾ ee 46/429 madam ˈmæd.əm meeʈam meeɖam attack əˈtæk aʈʈaak aʈʈaak A 1216/1545 sorter ˈsɔː.tər saaɾʈaɾ saaɾʈaɾ laboratory ləˈbɒr.ə.tri laapaɾaʈaɾi laabaɾaʈaɾi delta ˈdel.tə ʈelʈaa ɖelʈaa investment ɪnˈvest .mənt vəˈkeɪt inʋesʈmenʈ inʋesʈmenʈ ʋekkeeʈ ʋekkeeʈ Aa E 60/1545 125/1545 vacate 51 Ee I O Oo U Uu ʌ ʊ ɒ candidate ˈkæn.dɪ.dət kaanʈiʈeeʈ kaanɖiʈeeʈ statesman ˈsteɪt.smən sʈeeʈsmeen sʈeeʈsmeen increment ˈɪŋ.krə.mənt iŋkiɾimenʈ iŋkiɾimenʈ eligible ˈel.ɪ.dʒə.bl elidʒipiɭ elidʒibiɭ opinion əˈpɪn.jən oppinijan oppinijan position pəˈzɪʃ.ən pociʂan posiʂan kilogram ˈkɪl.ə.græm kilookɾaam kilookɾaam police pəˈliːs poolis poolis skilful ˈskɪl.fəl skilfuɭ skilfuɭ unnatural ʌnˈnætʃ.ər.əl anneeccuɾal anneeccuɾal peon ˈpiː.ən pjuun pjuun encouragement ɪnˈkʌr.ɪdʒ.mənt constable ˈkʌnt .stə.bl kaansʈapiɭ kaansʈabiɭ 22/1545 40/1545 29/1545 28/1545 15/1545 1/1545 enkaaɾedʒmenʈ enkaaɾedʒmenʈ aa 4/318 sponge spʌndʒ spaanɲc spaanɲc o 4/318 summer ˈsʌm.ər saammaɾ saammaɾ a 310/318 worry ˈwʌr.i ʋoɾi ʋoɾi wonderful ˈwʌn.də. onʈaɾful ʋonʈaɾful wonderful ˈwʌn.də.fəl ʋaɳʈaɾful ʋaɳʈaɾful uu 10/76 goods gʊdz kuuʈs kuuʈs u 60/76 to occupy ˈɒk.jʊ.paɪ aakkupai aakkupai i 4/76 education ˌed.jʊˈkeɪ.ʃən edʒikeeʂan edʒikeeʂan del syllable 2/76 deputy ˈdep.jʊ.ti ʈipʈi ʈipʈi oo 15/354 voltage ˈvɒl.tɪdʒ ʋoolʈeedʒ ʋoolʈeedʒ aa 326/354 copy ˈkɒ.pi kaappi kaappi u/n_ 6/354 economics ˌiː.kəˈnɒm.ɪks ekanumiks ekanumiks a 23/354 october ɒkˈtəʊ.bər akʈoopaɾ akʈoobaɾ 52 In Table 22, we find again that the vowel mapping patterns are consistent with phonetic similarity, but the effects of orthography is much more pronounced. Faithful mappings with high percentages are the mappings of /ɪ/ to [i], /e/ to [e], /ʊ/ to [u], /ʌ/ to [a] and /ɒ/ to [aa]. The vowels /æ/ and [ə] which are non-present in Tamil however are mapped based on other principles. /æ/ can be mapped to the phonetically similar [ee] which differs in terms of quality and length, or to [a] or [aa] which may be due to orthographic influence as English words which contain the phoneme /æ/ are predominantly spelled with , while the reduced vowel schwa [ə] of English has several variant mappings but predominantly it is mapped to [a] which may be an indicator of the unmarked status of this vowel in Tamil or it could be that speakers of Tamil find the English schwa very similar to their [a]. Other mappings of schwa are mostly due to orthographic influence, for instance: the schwa [ə] in /əˈpɪn.jən/ is mapped to [o] as in [oppinijan], and in / skɪl.fəl/ the schwa is mapped to [u] as in [skilfuɭ]. There is also variability in the representation of words beginning with the segments /vo/ from English when they are borrowed into Tamil; they can be borrowed without the initial /v/ in Tamil orthographic as there is a morpheme structure constraint against V + O word initial clusters while some borrowings have the segment represented in the orthography which reflect that they are representing it in terms of the actual pronunciation. Vowel harmony effects are also found in the borrowings where the source vowels are all borrowed as [a], e.g. /kɒr.ɪˈspɒn.dənt/  [kaɾaspaanʈanʈ]. 53 The diphthongal and triphthongal vowels of English are reproduced again to refresh the memory of the reader: Table 12: English Diphthongal Vowel Phonemes Closing /eɪ/ Centring /ɪə/ /aɪ/ /ɔɪ/ /əʊ/ /eə/ /aʊ/ /ʊə/ (Based on Cruttenden 2008: 91-92, with modifications) Table 13: English Triphthongal Vowels As two syllables Triphthong Loss of mid-element Further simplified as [aɪ.ə] [aɪə] [aːə] [aː] [ɑʊ.ə] [ɑʊə] [ɑːə] [ɑː] (Based on Cruttenden 2008: 145-148, with modifications) As shown above, English possesses more diphthongs as compared to Tamil, and Tamil has no triphthongs. Based on these differences, we need to ponder how Tamil will cope with English diphthongs and triphthongs when English words containing them are incorporated. As mentioned previously, deletion is not a favored strategy in loan adaptation, so one possibility is adapting the diphthongs as long vowels or to break them up with an epenthetic consonant. A similar strategy can be taken with triphthongs utilizing either adaptation into long vowels or epenthesis in tandem or alone. Table 23 illustrates diphthongal adaptation in Tamil: 54 Table 23: Diphthong Adaptation Inpu t Output Stats English Surface Form Tamil Graph /eɪ/ ee 351/433 staple ˈsteɪ.pl sʈeeppiɭ sʈeeppiɭ associate əˈsəʊ.si.eɪt acoocijeeʈ acoocijeeʈ paint peɪnt pejinʈ pejinʈ entertain en.təˈteɪn enʈaɾʈejin enʈaɾʈejin plain pleɪn pɭeejn pɭeejn avail əˈveɪl aʋeejl aʋeejl paperweight ˈpeɪ.pə.weɪt peeppaɾʋeejiʈ peeppaɾʋeejiʈ assign əˈsaɪn acain acain pipe paɪp paip paip eji eej /aɪ/ /ɔɪ/ 32/433 49/433 eeji 1/433 ai 265/273 Surface Form Oj 4/273 wife waɪf ojf ʋojf I 3/273 underline ˌʌn.dəˈlaɪn aɳʈaɾliin aɳʈaɾliin aji 1/273 mile maɪl majil majil Oil ɔɪl aajil aajil aaji 46/46 unemployment ˌʌn.ɪmˈplɔɪ.mənt anjempɭaajmenʈ anjempɭaajmenʈ tone təʊn ʈoon ʈoon ʋooʋaɾʈaim ʋooʋaɾʈaim oo 271/307 overtime o only ˈəʊn.li onli onli mosaic məʊ ˈzeɪ.ɪk moceejik moceejik clover ˈkləʊ.vər kɭaaʋaɾ kɭaaʋaɾ telephone ˈtel.ɪ.fəʊn ʈelifaan ʈelifaan 18/307 /əʊ/ aa ˈəʊ.və.taɪm 9/307 au 4/307 stove stəʊv sʈau sʈau u 3/307 piano piˈæn.əʊ pijaanu pijaanu a 2/307 envelope ˈen.və.ləʊp enʋelap enʋelap 55 əˈnaʊns announce au 30/90 anauns anauns maunʈan maunʈan mountain ˈmaʊn.tɪn out aʊt aʋuʈ aʋuʈ powder ˈpaʊ.dər paʋuʈaɾ paʋuʈaɾ gear gɪər kijaɾ gijaɾ engineer ˌen.dʒɪˈnɪər indʒinijaɾ indʒinijaɾ deal dɪəl ʈiil ɖiil zero ˈzɪə.rəʊ dʒiiɾoo dʒiiɾoo air force eər fɔːs eeɾfooɾs eeɾfooɾs careless ˈkeə.ləs keeɾles keeɾles /aʊ/ aʋu ija 60/90 26/39 /ɪə/ ii ee 13/39 45/47 /eə/ /ʊə/ e 1/47 undeveloped area ˌʌn.dɪˈvel.əpt ˈeə.ri.ə aɳʈeʋalapʈ eɾijaa aɳʈeʋalapʈ eɾijaa oja 1/47 square skweər skojaɾ skojaɾ tour tʊər ʈuuɾ ʈuuɾ uu 11/14 pure pjʊər pjuuɾ pjuuɾ jury ˈdʒʊə.ri dʒuɾi dʒuɾi bureau ˈbjʊə.rəʊ piiɾoo biiɾoo January ˈdʒæn.jʊə.ri dʒanaʋaɾi dʒanaʋaɾi u 1/14 others 2/14 56 From the above, we observe that dipthongs which has similar correspondents in Tamil like /aɪ/ and / aʊ/ are mapped faithfully in most of the cases. /aɪ / to [ai] mapping has more instances of faithful mapping as compared to / aʊ/ to [au]. / aʊ/ is borrowed with an epenthetic segment inserted, e.g. aʊt/[ aʋuʈ]. One possible reason is the marginal status of the diphthong [au] in Tamil where few words in its lexicon utilize this diphthong in comparison with [ai], which is more widely utilized. In the case of other diphthongs, they are mostly borrowed as long monophthongs based on the quality of the first vowel, e.g. /eɪ/[ee] in /ˈsteɪ.pl/ [sʈeeppiɭ]; based on orthography, e.g. /əʊ/ [oo] in /təʊn/ [ʈoon]; broken up with epenthesis, e.g. /ɪə/ [ija] in < gear> / gɪər/ [gijaɾ]; or having its vowel, in this case /i/ adapted as a glide [j] e.g. /eɪ/ [eej] in < plain> /pleɪn/ [pɭeejn]. Adaptation is also influenced by the onset present in the English source. Words which begin with /w/ in simplex or complex onsets usually have the diphthongs adapted with [o], e.g. /skweər/ [skojaɾ]. Based on the patterns shown here, we predict that tripthongs when adapted will also utilize similar strategies. Table 24 illustrates triphthongal adaptation: 57 Table 24: Triphthong Adaptation Input aɪə ɑʊə Output Stats English Surface Form Tamil Graph Surface Form aja 19/38 diary ˈdaɪə.ri ʈajaɾi ɖajaɾi oja 9/38 quiet kwaɪət kojaʈ kojaʈ ajar 3/38 iron safe aɪən seɪf ajaɾnseef ajaɾnseef ai 4/38 variety vəˈraɪə.ti ʋeɾaiʈʈi ʋeɾaiʈʈi aija 2/38 trial traɪəl ʈɾaijal ʈɾaijal iija 1/38 unreliable ˌʌn.rɪˈlaɪə.bl anɾiliijapiɭ anɾiliijapiɭ power paʊər paʋaɾ paʋaɾ aʋa 11/11 hour aʊər aʋaɾ aʋaɾ aija 4/10 amplifier ˈæm.plɪ.faɪ.ər aampɭipaijaɾ aampɭipaijaɾ aja 4/10 diet ˈdaɪ.ət ʈajaʈ ɖajaʈ eeja 1/10 cutting pliers ˈkʌt.ɪŋ ˈplaɪ.əz kaʈʈiŋpɭeejaɾ kaʈʈiŋpɭeejaɾ ai+del 1/10 dialogue ˈdaɪ.ə.lɒg ʈailaak ɖailaak 2/2 allowance əˈlaʊ.ənt s alaʋans alaʋans cauliflower ˈkɒl.ɪˌflaʊ.ər kaalifɭaʋaɾ kaalifɭaʋaɾ aɪ.ə ɑʊ.ə aʋa We observe that similar strategies are again used for triphthongal adaptation. The first portion of a triphthong which is a diphthong is borrowed either as a diphthong which exists in Tamil e.g. /aɪ / to [ai], which epenthesis of the glide [j] used in tandem with it in most instances to obtain an adapted string [aija] or the medial segment of a triphthong is borrowed as a glide [j] or [ʋ]. To summarise this section, the vowel mapping patterns in general indicate that mapping in general is based on phonetic similarity, orthographic influence and on 58 the restriction of complex vowels in Tamil. The reduced vowel schwa in English in most instances and other vowels in English are mostly mapped to [a] which may point to its status as unmarked in relation to other vowels or it is the default vowel in Tamil. Diphthongs and triphthongs are borrowed using similar strategies of adapting two vowel qualities as a single long monophthong and reinterpreting /i/ and /u/ as glides. The manner vowels are adapted point to the fact that adaptation is sensitive to the prosodic patterns of the source. We will postpone further discussions on this in the next chapter. In the next section, we attempt to account for the mapping patterns attested in the data. 3.4 Explanation for Mapping In this section we attempt to account for the observed mapping patterns starting with consonants followed by vowels. The framework used is Optimality Theory and we will also incorporate discussions about perception and production approaches to loan phonology. 3.4.1 An Account of Consonant Mapping As mentioned in prior chapters, three accounts of loan adaptation exist, namely the perceptual, the production, and the perception and production approaches. Here we will examine the mapping patterns based on these approaches. Recall that in the mapping of consonantal phonemes, there is a mismatch between English and Tamil in terms of the number of place, voicing, and manner distinctions. English has lesser number of place distinctions as compared to Tamil, but it utilizes voicing contrasts and more fricatives as compared to Tamil. Under 59 the combined perception and production approach by Steriade (2001), she argues that loanword adaptation is guided by a model of sound similarity called the PMap that underlies OT faithfulness and that similarity is based on distance in auditory space that is highly sensitive to the effects of context and subphonemic (enhancing) properties on the relative salience of speech sounds. The P-map controls the grammar through projection of correspondence constraints and their ranking with more distinct contrasts having higher ranked constraints to maintain it. Various studies based on the P-map (Broselow 1999, Kenstowicz 2003, Bond 1999, Zwicky 1976, Steriade 2002) suggests that manner features (continuancy and nasal) are ranked highest in terms of faithfulness with place and voicing less so. We observe here that it is indeed the case; most of the consonant mapping patterns adhere to this. For instance, for most of the categories of consonantal phonemes namely: plosives, nasals, fricatives, affricates, lateral, rhotics, and glides are adapted without violating faithfulness to manner. Exceptions which violate faithfulness to manner of articulation come from the category of fricatives and affricates which are relatively rare in Tamil as compared to English. /f/ is a relatively modern addition to the phonology of Tamil hence there are instances where English /f/ is mapped instead to [p] violating faithfulness to manner. One possible reason is that this mapping is done not on the basis of phonetic similarity but on the basis of production, as [p] is very distant to [f] in terms of acoustic distance and there is sociolinguistic pressure to stick to the so-called ―pure‖ phonology of Tamil. /z/ to [dʒ] adaptation also poses a problem where a fricative becomes an affricate. One possible reason is that the stop closure at the beginning 60 of the affricate is non-salient and the continuing frication of [dʒ] is similar to [z] acoustically. The interdental fricatives of English /θ/ and /ð/ which have been intractable because of their variant adaptations in different languages are adapted here not as fricatives but as plosives [t] and [d] violating faithfulness to manner. One possibility is that [t] and [d] are chosen to replace the affricates in the absence of suitable candidates with similar feature properties, and they do share similar place of articulation with /θ/ and /ð/. Violation of faithfulness to place is common as predicted by the p-map and they occur in the adaptation of nasals, laterals, rhotics, and in the adaptation of fricatives like /ʃ/ and /ʒ/ to [ʂ], and plosives like /t/ to [ʈ]. Finally, faithfulness to voicing is viewed as being the most violable under the pmap hypothesis but English plosives have voicing preserved when they are borrowed into Tamil instead of having their voiceless counterparts, violating faithfulness to voicing. One possible reason is the high level of bilingualism for Tamil speakers who use English loans and speakers and the fact that voicing exists in Tamil and is allophonic. However, the prediction holds true in fricative adaptation where voicing is violated. Our patterns thus point to the fact that in Tamil violation of place of articulation may be lower ranked as compared to voicing unlike previous studies. Based on the above explanations, an OT analysis under the P-Map hypothesis which claims that changeability of various segmental features is governed by their perceptibility is as follows: similar to Miao (2005) we propose a perceptibility 61 scale of featural distinctiveness in (1) which projects a constraint hierarchy in (2) based on our observations about the mapping patterns with perceptibility of Manner of articulation ranked the highest, followed by voicing and place: 1) Perceptibility Scale of Featural Distinctiveness Manner>> Voicing >> Place 2) Ranking of featural correspondence IDENT (Manner) >> IDENT (Voicing) >> IDENT (Place) The adaptation of plosives can thus be represented in the Tableau in (3). Notice that candidates non-faithful to voicing are the next best candidates when compared to the winning candidate, and that mapping the voiced alveolar stop to a nasal will violate IDENT (Manner) which is a fatal violation. The maximally faithful candidate [d] is ruled out because there is no such segment in Tamil and incorporating it is drastic as it amounts to increasing a new contrast. 3) /d/[ɖ] /d/ IDENT (Manner) IDENT (Voice) IDENT (Place)  a) ɖ b) ʈ c) n *! *! d) d The mapping of nasals follows the same vein but with added phonotactic restrictions in the distribution of nasal occurrence influencing the mapping, and 62 the cluster [nd] ruled out because /d/ is adapted always as [ɖ] and there is a homorganic requirement for clusters.The tableau in (4) demonstrates this: 4) /nd/[ɳɖ] /nd/ IDENT (Manner) *Agree (Place)  a) ɳɖ IDENT (Voice) IDENT (Place) * b) ɳd *! c) nɖ *! For fricatives, mapping shows great variability with outputs varying in terms of place of articulation and sometimes manner of articulation. One possibility is that Tamil has more place distinctions and in terms of this dimension better equipped to spread out contrasts in contrast with other languages examined in prior studies. Of interest here are the adaptation of /z/ to [dʒ] where a fricative becomes an affricate, and postalveolar fricatives /ʃ/ to [ʂ] and /ʒ/ to [ʂ] or [s]. Broselow (2001) and Miao (2005) argues that preservation of major articulatory regions enjoys higher priority as compared to other features such as voicing and stridency in phoneme substitution of loan phonology and Miao proposes a constraint IDENT (MajorArtic) to complement her argument with regards to the mapping of fricatives: 5) IDENT (Major Artic) The major articulatory region of an output segment is identical to that of the input. (Major articulatory regions = labial, coronal, dorsal/guttural) 63 Here we find that voicing may enjoy higher priority in adaptation but the argument raised by Miao on major regions of articulation still holds in the choosing of output; [ʃ], [ʂ], [ʒ], [s] are all produced in the coronal region. The mapping of /f/ to [f] or [p] will not be discussed here as there is evidence that this adaptation may be due to other non-perceptual reasons. The mapping of /θ/ to [t], and /ð/ to [d], also violates faithfulness to manner of articulation while remaining faithful to place of articulation. The tableaus in (5), (6) and (7) show this in detail: 6) /z/[dʒ] /z/ IDENT (Manner)  a) dʒ *! b) tʃ *! IDENT (Voice) IDENT (Place) * *! c) s *! d) n *! e) ɖ *! 7) /ʒ/  [ʂ] or [s] /ʒ/ IDENT (Manner) IDENT (Major Artic) IDENT (Voice) IDENT (Place)  a) ʂ * b) s c) x * *! 64 * 8) /θ/  [t] /θ/ IDENT (Manner)  a) t *! IDENT (Voice) b) d *! * c) n *! * d) s IDENT (Place) * Under the current constraint ranking, mapping of /z/ to [dʒ] and interdental fricatives to dental plosives pose a problem as they are not mapped to [s] which is similar in terms of manner but to a postalveolar affricate and dental plosives respectively in Tamil which differ in terms of manner. As mentioned above, these adaptations may be an exception in that it is based on phonological space consideration of Tamil. Mapping /z/ and interdental fricatives to these categories is much more desirable then creating new segmental contrasts. Finally, affricates, laterals, rhotics, and glides do not pose much a problem for adaptation and are adapted wholesale with minor featural changes due to contextual markedness constraints. Tableaus (8), (9), (10) and (11) show this. 9) /tʃ/  [tʃ] /tʃ/ IDENT (Manner) IDENT (Voice)  a) tʃ 65 IDENT (Place) b) ʈ *! * c) n *! * d) s *! * 10) /l/  [l] or [ɭ] /l/ *#_(Retroflex) IDENT (Manner) IDENT IDENT (Voice) (Place)  a) #[l]  b) [ɭ]# *  c) [l]# d) #[ɭ] *! e) n *! f) s *! 11) /r/  [ɾ] or [r] /r/ *initial/final r IDENT IDENT IDENT (Manner) (Voice) (Place)  a) #ɾ  b) ɾ#  c) VrV d) r# * 12) /w/  [ʋ] /w/ IDENT (Manner) IDENT (Voice) 66 IDENT (Place)  a) ʋ * b) m *! Under the production grammar approach of loan phonology, Ito and Mester (1995) argue from a constraint ranking Optimal Theoretic framework that re-ranking of the same set of faithfulness constraints accounts for different strata of the Japanese lexicon ranging from native to less nativized vocabulary. Their more recent approach is under strata faithfulness theory where there is a single phonology (i.e. one constraint ranking) with multiple strata faithfulness constraints with specific/general distinction similar to Input-Out versus BaseReduplicant correspondence relation and positional faithfulness shown here using the example of palatalization of coronal plosives and fricatives before [i] in Japanese (Ito and Mester 2002): 13) Palatization of Coronal Plosives and Fricatives /mat/ 'to wait' mat ana i PRESENT NEGATIVE matSi mas u POLITE PRESENT matS i maS i ta POLITE PAST 14) Static-distributional counterpart—e.g., verb roots: de das tas te tor 'go out' 'put out' 'add' 'shine' 'take' (No roots like *[ti...] or *[di...].) 67 But in loanwords and other lexically peripheral items: paatii *paatSii 'party' diNgo *dZiNgo (name of car model) *tiimu tSiimu 'team' *diremma dZiremma 'dilemma At the same time: Instead of co-phonologies where faithfulness is ranked differently, they propose a single phonology with specific (stratal) faithfulness: 15) Phonology-Native Phonology-Foreign PAL>>IDENT IDENT>>PAL Versus 16) Stratal faithfulness theory IDENT-Foreign>>PAL>>IDENT The data and patterns found in this study can also be explained under such an approach where we have FAITH-EL for words borrowed from English. Of interest here is the phenomenon of voicing in plosives and adaptation of laterals and rhotics. We will postpone discussion of laterals and rhotics in terms of 68 production grammar to the next chapter as it is phonotactic in nature. In Tamil plosives are underlying voiceless and become voiced through post-nasal voicing and intervocalic voicing, and intervocalically, voiceless plosives are always geminates. Here we can represent this in terms of a constraint hierarchy using four constraints with FAITH-EL and FAITH-NATIVE: 17) *NC (Pater 1999) No nasal plus voiceless obstruent sequences 18) INTER-V-VOICE Single Intervocalic consonants are voiced 19) VOICED OBSTRUENT PROHIBITION (VOP) *[+voice, -son] 20) DEP-MORA – IO (Hume et al.1997) Output moras have input correspondents And the constraint hierarchy which can derive the observed patterns is as follows: a) FAITH-EL>> *NC>> VOP versus *NC>> VOP >> FAITH-NATIVE for non-postnasal voicing in English loans as compared to mandatory voicing in native words b) FAITH-EL>> VOP versus VOP>> FAITH-NATIVE for underlying voiced obstruents in English loans surfacing as compared to no underlying voiced segments in native words c) FAITH-EL >> INTER-V-VOICE >> DEP-MORA – IO >> FAITH-NATIVE 69 for voicing being preserved in intervocalic contexts through gemination which prevents intervocalic voicing The tableaus are as follows: 21) NC NC+voi (In Native Phonology) /NC/ /iɾaɳʈu/ *NC  a) NC+voi [iɾaɳɖu] b) NC [iɾaɳʈu] VOP FAITH-NATIVE * * *NC VOP *! 22) NC NC (In Loan Phonology) /NC/ / ˈfaʊn.tɪn/ FAITH-EL  a) NC [paʋunʈan] * b) NC+voi [paʋunɖan] * 23) C+voi C-voi (In Native Phonology, and due to lexicon optimization voiced obstruents are never proposed underlyingly in native Tamil) / C+voi / VOP FAITH-NATIVE  a) C-voi b) C+voi * * 70 (24) C+voi C+voi (In loan phonology) / C+voi / /bɒm/ FAITH-EL VOP  a) C+voi [baam] * b) C-voi [paam] * 25) VkV VgV (In Native Phonology) / VkV / /aaʈu/ DEP-MORA – IO INTER-V-VOICE FAITH-NATIVE  a) VgV [aaɖu] b) VkV [aaʈu] * * 26) VkVVkkV (In Loan Phonology) / VkV/ /əˈpəʊz/ FAITH-EL INTER-V-VOICE  a) VkkV [appoos] * b) VkV [apoos] b) VgV [aboos] DEP-MORA – IO *! *! Finally, we can combine them into one constraint hierarchy as below: FAITH-EL >> INTER-V-VOICE, *NC>> DEP-MORA – IO >> VOP >> FAITH-NATIVE We include DEP-MORA–IO together with FAITH-EL, to account for the patterns where voiceless plosives can be found either as geminates or non-geminates in intervocalic positions. 71 3.4.2 An Account of Vowel Mapping Previously, we noted that vowel mapping can be highly faithful in the case of long monophthongs, less so in short monophthongs and complex vowels, with a variety of strategies used such as faithful adaptations, epenthesis of glides, orthographic influences, and reinterpretation of vowels as glides. Here we account for the phenomena of short and long monophthong mapping reserving discussion of complex vowels in the next chapters which deal with phonotactics. 3.4.2.1 Long Monophthongs Long monophthongs of English are faithfully mapped to Tamil long vowels in most instances: Statistic for Long Monophthong Mapping English Tamil Percentage of Instances iː  ii 78.2% uː  uu 82.6% ɜː  Vɾ 100% ɔː  aa 33.5%  aaɾ 32.7%  ooɾ 30.7%  aa 42.4%  aaɾ 56.5% ɑː /iː/ and /uː/ are mapped without any adaptations in the majority of the instances, but /ɜː/, /ɔː/ and /ɑː/ have differing correspondents. First, orthography is a factor in adaptation. Syllables which have will result in adaptations with [ɾ] following 72 the vowel. This could be due to the fact that Tamil speakers are adapting based partly on the way words are spelt in English and for /ɜː/, this is 100% of all the instances from the data. /ɔː/ and /ɑː/ which do not have direct correspondents are mapped to similar sounding [aa] or [oo] which are both back vowels found in Tamil. 3.4.2.2 Short Monophthongs Short monophthongs also have highly faithful mappings however they have more varied mappings in the unfaithful ones. The statistics are as follows: Statistic for Short Monophthong Mapping English ɪ e æ ə ʌ Tamil Percentage of Instances  i 86.5%  ortho/harmony 13.5%  ee 1.1%  e 83.1%  a 12.8%  i 2.44%  o 0.6%  a 8.2%  aa 81.1%  ee 10.7%  a 78.7%  aa 3.9%  e 8.1%  aa 1.3% 73 ʊ ɒ  o 1.3%  a 97.4%  uu 13.2%  u 80%  i 5.3%  oo 4.2%  aa 92.1%  a 2.5% In most instances mapping is faithful. The mapping of /æ/ to [aa] (81.1%), /ɒ/ to [aa] (92.1%), and /ʌ/ to [a] (97.4%) however are unique. This is because all of them are short vowels in English yet they are mapped to vowels of differing length in Tamil. One possibility is that vowel height is perceived as a difference in length by Tamil speakers; /ʌ/ is near-open while /ɒ/ is a low vowel and when speakers borrow from English they perceive the difference in height as difference in prominence which translate into difference in length. The borrowing of /æ/ to [aa] however contradicts this explanation as under such an analysis it will be borrowed as [a]. On a closer look we find that in most instances /æ/ occurs in single syllable words or in stressed positions in English: Contexts where æ occurs slæp  slaap ―slap‖ stæmp  sʈaamp ―stamp‖ kənˈtræk.tər  kaɳʈɾaakʈaɾ ―contractor‖ ɪgˈzæm  eksaam ―exam‖ 74 Short monosyllabic words are disallowed in Tamil, hence when a word with a short vowel is borrowed; the tendency is for it to be borrowed as a long vowel. 3.5 Summary In this chapter we have examined the segmental mapping patterns when English words are borrowed into Tamil. We found that the mapping patterns are based on phonetics and phonology of Tamil and orthography plays a huge role in borrowing. Loan adaptation is thus complicated and a myriad of factors may influence the result of borrowing. Also, as pointed out by Paradis (1995), segment deletion is seldom encountered in loanword adaptation and our findings are in line with hers. We also argued that the adaptation of voicing contrast in Tamil loans occurs because of concerns with expressing contrast, phonetics, bilingualism, and universal typological evidence of prevalence of voicing and contact with neighboring languages. Finally, we attempted to account for the patterns using Steriade‘s (2002) P-Map Hypothesis and found that it is in general capable of accounting for most patterns from a perceptual similarity perspective. However the adaptation of interdental fricatives is problematic for this account and that it does not explain why voicing is implemented in most of the adaptations. From another perspective, we find that the production grammar point of view which assumes bilingualism accounts for the surfacing voiced obstruents, gemination of voiceless stops in intervocalic positions and deactivating of postnasal through stratal- faithfulness theory where 75 patterns of adaptation of foreign words are due to specific faithfulness constraint Faith-EL. In the next chapter, we examine the phonotactics and prosodic repair. 76 CHAPTER FOUR Phonotactic and Prosodic Repairs 4.1 Introduction In this chapter, we look at phonotactic repairs in detail. As noted previously, the syllable structure of English is more complex as compared to Tamil. We begin our discussion with the consonant clusters of English and the different strategies in their adaptation, followed by complex vowels and their adaptation patterns. The structure of the chapter is as follows: in section 4.2 we examine the patterns of adaptation for the consonantal clusters of English where they can be adapted through three ways: a) epenthesis of a vowel, b) coalescence with another vowel, c) without modifications; in section 4.3 we move on and examine adaptation of diphthongs and triphthongs where they can be adapted through three strategies: a) epenthesis of glides, b) becoming a glide, c) through simplification; and lastly we summarize our findings in 4.4. 4.2 Differing patterns of adaptation of consonant clusters In Chapter Two, we compared the consonantal phonotactics of English and Tamil with the former permitting a larger set of possible clusters, while the latter a smaller set. Given the difference between the two languages, it is predicted that unpermitted clusters will either be broken up by epenthesis or deletion, strategies commonly used in loan adaptation. However, conflicting strategies are used to 77 adapt English source words into Tamil as we see in the data. The main strategies are epenthesis, coalescence, and direct adaptation with no modifications to the cluster in question. 4.2.1 Epenthesis In various studies of loan adaptation, epenthesis is the often used repair strategy, and Tamil is no exception: 1) Patterns of Epenthesis in Consonant Cluster Adaptation A) Epenthesis of [i] a) græm  kiɾaam ―gram‖ b) krɪm.ɪ.nəl  kiɾiminal ―criminal‖ c) glɑːs  kiɭaas ―glass‖ d) klɪər  kiɭijaɾ ―clear‖ e) slɪp  cilip ―slip‖ f) ˈdjuː.ti  ʈijuuʈʈi ―duty‖ g) ˈdjuː.plɪ.keɪt  ʈijuupɭikeeʈ ―duplicate‖ h) drʌm  ʈiɾam ―drum‖ i) ˈtræk.tər  ʈiɾaakʈaɾ ―tractor‖ j) ˈθrɪl.ɪŋ  tiɾilliŋ ―thrilling‖ k) ˈbjuː.gl  pijuukiɭ ―bugle‖ l) pres  piɾas ―press‖ m) slɪp  silip ―slip‖ B) Epenthesis of [u] n) pruːf  puɾuuf ―proof‖ o) ˈbrəʊ.kər  puɾookkaɾ ―broker‖ p) gruːp  kuɾuup ―group‖ q) grəʊs  kuɾoos ―gross‖ r) ˌkwɒl.ɪ.fɪˈkeɪ.ʃən  kuʋaalifikkeeʂan ―qualification‖ s) ˈklɒr.ə.fɔːm  kuɭooɾafaam ―chloroform‖ t) ˈdjuː.ti  ʈujuuʈʈi ―duty‖ From the above we note that clusters constituting of a stop and an approximant such as /dr/ or a fricative and an approximant /sl/ are broken up via epenthesis when borrowed into Tamil which is most likely due to differences in syllable structure. Of interest here is the type of vowel epenthesized. Previous literature on the kind of epenthetic vowels argue that they tend to be the least marked segment 78 and tend to be contextually coloured (Selkirk 1981, Ito 1986, Lowenstamm and Kaye 1986), and the quality of an epenthetic vowel in loanword phonology (Uffmann 2005) arises from the complex interaction of three distinct processes: vowel harmony, local assimilation to the preceding consonant and default insertion. Here we notice that either [i] or [u] is the vowel of choice in epenthesis for Tamil consonant clusters. A preliminary guess based on observation of the context is that [u] tends to appear when there is either a [labial] vowel (u/o) or consonant (w/p/b). In other contexts, [i] occurs. [u] is also epenthesized after word final clusters or final obstruents: 2) Word Final Epenthesis of [u] a) rəʊd  ɾooʈu ―road‖ b) gaɪd  kaiʈu ―guide‖ b) ɪˈvent  iʋeɳʈu ―event‖ c) end  enʈu ―end‖ The motivation for word final epenthesis is the restriction on obstruents occurring in final position and on consonant clusters not separated by syllable boundaries, and in the case of word ending clusters, they tend to end with /nd/ or /nt/ in English and inserting a vowel after the final obstruent would solve both constraints. In fact, vowel insertion is common in Tamil, and is often one of the differences noted between ‗formal‘ and ‗colloquial‘ Tamil due to their different grammars; in the former, only obstruents are barred from word-final positions, but in the later virtually all words end with vowels (Annamalai & Steever 1998:103). 79 Another pattern which emerges is the rarity of epenthesis in words which were adapted using grantha letters; they do not have epenthesis for words which have illicit syllable structures for instance those that contain complex onsets such as and . Rather there is a tendency to preserve faithfulness to the English source. This departure could be due to the context of the borrowing. When borrowing a word through grantha letters, there could be an assumption that a foreign word is being borrowed into Tamil‘s loan system and therefore it is allowed to detract from the constraint on complex onsets, thus maintaining as much faithfulness to the source as possible. This can also be construed as an argument for the existence of a strata faithfulness grammar as argued by Ito & Mester‘s (1995) where faithfulness to the foreign source outweighs native markedness: (3) / flæt / [fɭaaʈ] (in cases where it is acknowledged explicitly that source is foreign and represented in grantha) / flæt/ FAITH-EL  a) fɭaaʈ b) fuɭaaʈ *COMPLEXONSET * * Under such an analysis, it is possible to derive two adaptation forms from one source; one which adheres to to FAITH-EL, and the other which adheres to FAITH-NATIVE. 80 4.2.2 Coalescence An alternative strategy used in the adaptation of English words is coalescence where clusters like /kw/ are adapted with the second consonant combining with the original vowel giving rise to a vowel with similar property to the consonant: 3) Patterns of Coalescence in Consonant Cluster Adaptation a) kwəʊ ˈteɪ.ʃən  koʈʈeeʂan ―quotation‖ b) kwaɪət  kojaʈ ―quiet‖ c)ˈkwes.tʃən  kosʈijan ―question‖ The features of the consonant segment /w/ are taken up by the vowel resulting in [o] surfacing. This is not surprising as such an adaptation preserves part of the consonant by linking it with the vowel. The reverse pattern is noted by Paradis and Prunet (2000) where nasal vowels in French are adapted as vowel plus nasal segments in English. 4.2.3 Direct Adaptation Patterns of direct adaptation are also attested. As mentioned, epenthesis is often used but there are instances where direct adaptation occurs: 4) Patterns of Direct Consonant Cluster Adaptation a) græm  kɾaam b) criminal  ˈkrɪm.ɪ.nəl c) glass  glɑːs d) clear  klɪər e) slip  slɪp f) ˈdjuː.ti  ʈjuuʈʈi g) ˈdjuː.plɪ.keɪt  ʈjuuplikeeʈ h) drʌm  ʈɾam i) ˈtræk.tər  ʈɾaakʈaɾ j) ˈθrɪl.ɪŋ  tɾilliŋ k) ˈbjuː.gl  pjuukiɭ l) pres  piɾas m) slɪp  slip 81 ―gram‖ ―kɾiminal‖ ―kɭaas‖ ―kɭijaɾ‖ ―clip‖ ―duty‖ ―duplicate‖ ―drum‖ ―tractor‖ ―thrilling‖ ―bugle‖ ―press‖ ―slip‖ n) o) p) q) r) pruːf ˈbrəʊ.kər gruːp ˌkwɒl.ɪ.fɪˈkeɪ.ʃən ˈklɒr.ə.fɔːm      pɾuuf pɾookkaɾ kɾuup kʋaalifikeeʂan kɭooɾapaam ―proof‖ ―broker‖ ―group‖ ―qualification‖ ―chloroform‖ From the above we notice that words which can be adopted either through epenthesis and coalescence can also be directly adapted with minimal change. Additionally, the prohibitions on obstruents and complex codas in word final position are also ignored leading to direct adaptation: 5) Adaptation resulting in word-final obstruents or complex codas a) meɪn rəʊd  mejinɾooʈ ―main road‖ b) vəʊt  ʋooʈ ―vote‖ c) ɪˈvent  iiʋeɳʈ ―event‖ d) bend  penʈ ―bend‖ Given that different adaptation strategies for a same English word to Tamil is possible, a question arises as to why Tamil adopts a multitude of strategies to achieve its goal. 4.2.4 Why Conflicting Patterns are attested One possible argument comes from Smith (2005) where she makes related observations on Japanese. However in her case, epenthesis and deletion are two conflicting strategies used rather than epenthesis, coalescence and direct adaptation, and she makes an argument against the perception perspective of loan adaptation, arguing that deletion repairs are in fact due to auditory influence instead of orthographic ones and proposes a non-perception explanation for epenthesis repairs for cases with known deletion doublet forms as due to orthographic assumed URs. 82 In our case here, we cannot determine with absolute certainty the reason for the multitude strategies used as the source of the data in the dictionary are gathered from several disparate sources possibly borrowed through different modes be it phonological, phonetic, perception, and or orthographic. However, we can make intelligent hypotheses with regard to the observed data and our understanding of Tamil. It is very likely that final epenthesis in instances where words like becomes [ɾooʈu] and onset clusters are separated are motivated in part by the native phonology of Tamil which prohibits final obstruents and complex clusters and also has [u] epenthesis being morphologically conditioned: (6) [u] epenthesis in obstruent-final stems (Christdas 1988:289) Stem Nominative Gloss kaat kaadu ear kaac kaacu coin kamp kambu stick paakk paakku a nut Note that [u] normally undergoes vowel reduction in Native Tamil in nonprominent positions i.e. positions where there is no stress. In the cases when epenthesis is used to break up onset clusters, it is obvious that phonological grammar is acting to remove banned clusters. The choice of vowel 83 used will depend on the phonological context. [u] is used where there are [labial] consonants, while [i] is used for remaining situations. (7) [i] epenthesis in complex onsets *COMPLEXONSET / glɑːs / ‗glass‘ Ident-IO Max Labial-round *[+round]  a) kiɭaas b) kulaas c) kɭaas *! *! *[+low] *[-back] ** * ** ** d) kaas *! e) kuluus **! f) kiɭiis **! ** *** *** (8) [u] epenthesis in complex onsets / pruːf/ ‗proof‘ *COMPLEXONSET Max Ident-IO Labialround *[+round]  a) puɾuuf b) piɾuuf c) pruːf d) puːf *! * *! *[+low] *[-back] ** * ** ** *! ** e) piɾiif **! 84 *** *** In cases where the offending consonant merges with the vowel, we propose an analysis of coalescence following Pater (1999) with the relevant correspondence constraint: (8) LINEARITY-IO The output reflects the precedence structure of the input, and vice versa. The fact that the consonant fuses when adapted points to the dominance of LINEARITY-IO by *COMPLEXONSET: (9) Coalescence of /w/ with vowel / kwaɪət / ‗quiet‘ *COMPLEXONSET MAX-IO  a) kojaʈ b) kwajat c) kajat LINEARITY-IO * *! *! The above tableau shows that preservation of input segments in the output outweighs the precedence relations of the input while at the same time, the marked structure complex onset is avoided. The direct adaptation patterns attested could be explained as we have shown above for adaptations which have grantha script, by evoking strata-faithfulness theory under the view point of a production grammar. Other possible means of analysis would be the perceptual similarity approach using constraints that enforce the need to maintain similarity with the source as argued by (Smith 2005, Yip 85 2002, Kang 2003, Kenstowicz 2003) using output-output faithfulness constraints defining a correspondence relation which may include orthographic, auditory perception and borrowing language information. Here in the case of direct adaptation, maximal faithfulness is enforced and it is very likely that the process of borrowings for such words is purely orthographic without any influence from phonology. The coalescence patterns analysed above can also be explained under such a perspective, however, the degree of faithfulness is lower as compared to direct adaptation patterns. We posit that such borrowings are done through perception, as it is likely that the offending consonant is perceived as a vowel. Lastly, under such a viewpoint, epenthesis forms are in fact the least similar. Thus, from the perspective of the degree of similarity between the source and the borrowed form, a scale where adaptation based on phonological grammar is furthest away as compared to those based on output-output faithfulness constraints that involves orthographic and perception: (10) Scale of Similarity More Similar>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>Less Similar Direct Adaptation > Coalescence > Epenthesis Orthographic > Perception > Phonological As mentioned, Smith (2005) provides interesting evidence from Japanese loan doublets that contradicts the perception-only perspective of loan adaptation which coincides with our findings. In the absence of more conclusive evidence, we can only believe for the time being that the production and perceptual similarity 86 approaches are persuasive in explaining the above conflicting patterns. In the next subsection, we move on and examine the adaptation of complex vowels. 4.3 Differing patterns of adaptation for complex vowels Similar to consonantal clusters patterns above; differing strategies are utilized in adaptation of complex vowels. Diphthongs can be adapted through changing of features into a long vowel, glide epenthesis, or direct adaptation; triphthongs can be adapted through non-moraic interpretation of vowels, glide epenthesis, and simplification through deletion. Again, different patterns arise possibly because of different contexts of borrowing. 4.3.1 Diphthongal Adaptation English allows for a wide variety of diphthongs in contrast to Tamil which has restrictions on complex vowels. Thus, when adaptation occurs, as we have seen in the prior chapter, similar sounding diphthongs can be directly adapted or undergo epenthesis of a glide, while other dissimilar ones are either interpreted as noncomplex long vowels preserving its length contrast. 4.3.1.1 Non-Complex Long Vowel Diphthongs can be interpreted as non-complex becoming a long vowel preserving its length distinctions: 11) Diphthongal adaptations as Long Monophthongs a) ˈsteɪ.pl  sʈeeppiɭ ―staple‖ (eɪ  ee) b) ˌʌn.dəˈlaɪn  aɳʈaɾliin ―underline‖ (aɪ  ii) 87 c) təʊn  ʈoon ―tone‖ (əʊ  oo) d) ˈkləʊ.vər  kɭaaʋaɾ ―clover‖ (əʊ  aa) e) dɪəl  ʈiil ―deal‖ (ɪə  ii) f) ˈkeə.ləs  keeɾles ―careless‖ (eə  ee) g) tʊər  ʈuuɾ ―tour‖ (ʊə  uu) With the exception of [ai] and [iə], most diphthongs are adapted as non-complex long vowels. 4.3.1.2 Glide Epenthesis Alternatively, a glide can be inserted to break up forbidden vowel combinations: 12) Glide epenthesis in diphthongs a) peɪnt  pejinʈ b) en.təˈteɪn  enʈaɾʈejin c) maɪl  majil d) gɪər  kijaɾ e) ˌen.dʒɪˈnɪər  indʒinijaɾ f) aʊt  aʋuʈ g) ˈpaʊ.dər  paʋuʈaɾ ―paint‖ ―entertain‖ ―mile‖ ―gear‖ ―engineer‖ ―out‖ ―powder‖ 4.3.1.3 Direct Adaptation In situations where diphthongs similar to Tamil ones are found, they can be adapted as diphthongs: 13) Direct Adaptation of Similar diphthongs a) əˈsaɪn  acain ―assign‖ b) paip  paɪp ―pipe‖ c) stəʊv  sʈau ―stove‖ d) əˈnaʊns  anauns ―announce‖ e) ˈmaʊn.tɪn  maunʈan ―mountain‖ 88 Even though both ai and au are attested diphthongs in Tamil, there is a dispreference to adopt English /au/ as [au] as it has a very low frequency of occurrence in Tamil words (Personal Communication from Dr. Thinnappan). One third of the tokens of /au/ is directly adapted, while the rest are adapted with epenthesis, whereas /ai/ has 265/273 instances of adaptation as [ai]. 4.3.2 Triphthong Adaptation English possesses many triphthongs whereas Tamil has none. When English triphthongs are adapted they are again exposed to strategies similar to that in the adaptation of diphthongs but in this instance, more complicated as more vowels are involved. 4.3.2.1 Non-Moraic Interpretation of High Vowels Rather than epenthesizing a glide, one straightforward method is to reinterpret a vowel as non-moraic, thus resyllablifying the word: 14) Non-moraic interpretation of High Vowels a) ˈdaɪə.ri  ʈajaɾi ―diary‖ b) rɪˈtaɪər  ɾiʈajaɾ ―retire‖ c) ˌvaɪəˈlɪn  ʋajalin ―violin‖ d) taɪər  ʈajaɾ ―tyre‖ e) əˈlaʊ.əns  alaʋans ―allowance‖ f) ˈkɒl.ɪˌflaʊ.ər  kaalifɭaʋaɾ ―cauliflower‖ g) Power  paʊər ―paʋaɾ‖ h) aʊər  aʋaɾ ―hour‖ 89 4.3.2.2 Glide Epenthesis Glide epenthesis is also possible when insertion of the glide results with resyllablification with remaining vowels which are licit in Tamil: 15) Glide Epenthesis in Triphthongs a) traɪəl  ʈɾaijal ―trial‖ b) rɪˈlaɪə.bl  ɾilaijapiɭ ―reliable‖ 4.3.2.3 Simplification Finally, other than epenthesis of glides and reinterpretation of a vowel as a glide, deletion can also be utilized especially in triphthongs that end with a schwa: 16) Deletion in Triphthongs a) ˈsaɪən.tɪst  cainʈisʈ ―scientist‖ b) vəˈraɪə.ti  ʋeɾaiʈʈi ―variety‖ 4.3.3 Explanation for differing strategies Though confusing, when viewed as whole, a pattern emerges for the differing adaptations of complex vowels. Deletion is the least often utilized strategy for complex vowels adaptation, with non-moraic interpretation, simplification of complex long vowels into non-complex ones, and epenthesis of glides as the more dominant patterns used. Again, the pattern which emerges is in line with the conclusion from Paradis (1995) that segment deletion or reduction in similarity (Smith 2005, Yip 2002, Kang 2003, Kenstowicz 2003) is always dispreferred. Once more we are faced with the question why such disparate means are used for 90 adaptation of vowels; our solution is parallel to that of consonant cluster adaptation- these different patterns arise because of either different contexts of adaptation or the usage of different components of the grammar. Simplification of complex long vowels into non-complex ones can be argued from the perspective of perception. Tamil distinguishes for vowel length but do not have a huge set of complex vowels like English. Speakers therefore perceive the length differences of English words and retain them when borrowing, losing information about its quality. The easiest way would be to reinterpret it as a long vowel with a similar vowel quality linked to it: X X e  X ɪ X e The alternative strategy of interpreting it as a single diphthong with a single Xslot is unavailable as such diphthongal combination do not exist in Tamil, and it would be at the price of deleting a X-slot which can have huge perceptible differences: X X e ɪ  * X e ɪ Direct adaptation is impossible as speakers focus mainly on the duration and not the quality of the second vowel of the diphthongal sequence. Such vowel structures do not exist in Tamil also: 91 X X e  ɪ * X X e ɪ To account for the above pattern of adaptation in perception, we need the following constraints: 17) *COMPLEX no more than one C or V may associate to any syllable position node 18) NoDiphthongs two tautosyllabic moras linked to two distinct vowels are prohibited 19) MAX-MORA Every mora in the input has an output correspondent 20) NO LONG VOWELS two moras linked to one vocalic root node prohibited The following tableau shows the adaptation patterns of English diphthongs as Tamil long vowels: 21) Simplification of Complex Vowels in Perception Grammar steɪ.pl ‗staple‘ MAXMORA *NoDiphthongs *COMPLEX  a) sʈeep.piɭ b) sʈeɪp.piɭ NO LONG VOWELS * *! μμ 92 c) sʈe ɪp.piɭ *! * μ d) sʈep.piɭ *! The patterns of adaptation through non-moraic interpretation of vowels can be accounted for in the same vein; however the high vowel is misperceived as a glide intervening between two vowels as ultra long vowel sequences of different quality are not licit in Tamil. In this instance, the vowel is resyllabified as an onset glide fulfilling the need to have onsets in syllables but it is no longer moraic. The following additional constraints would then be needed to account for such an adaptation: 22) ONSET Syllables must have onsets. The below tableau explains the adaptation patterns: 23) Non-moraic interpretation of Complex Vowels in Perception Grammar ˈdaɪə.ri ‗diary‘ ONSET  a) ʈa.ja.ɾi b) ʈaia.ɾi c) ʈaa.ɾi MAX-MORA NO LONG VOWELS * *! * *! * Thus given a chance, the speaker will perceive a vowel as an onset glide. 93 Epenthesis as a strategy can be accounted for under the perception approach as there is no reason for the grammar to disallow diphthongs which exist in it, unless there is misperception in the first place. Perfectly legit diphthongs from English possible to be adapted directly into Tamil fail to be adapted because they are misperceived as two syllables which is explained in the following tableau: 24) Epenthesis of Glides aʊt ‗out‘ *NoDiphthongs MAX  a) aʋuʈ b) aʊt c) at DEP * *! *! Deletion which is rare can occur as a last resort to fix super long vowel sequences and again, important information is not lost as the deleted vowel is usually schwa, the least emphasized vowel in English. Deletion repairs however are problematic as they still produce super-heavy syllables prohibited in Tamil. We argue that deletion repairs are in fact either repairs borne through orthographic influence and the pressure to maintain as much similarity to the source, or due to misperception of the super-long complex vowels. The resultant adapted form bears close resemblance to the orthographic form in English: 94 25) Orthographic Adaptation To Tamil Sound Input Orthographic Input /saɪən.tɪst/ [S a I nʈisʈ] Resultant Output 26) Simplification of Super-Long-Vowels in Perception Grammar ˈsaɪən.tɪst ‗scientist‘ NO-SUPERLONGVOWELS  a) cainʈisʈ b) caianʈisʈ MAX * *! 4.4 Summary In this chapter, we have looked at the phonotactic repairs in detail and found that the multitude of consonantal cluster and complex vowel patterns can be explicated if an assumption that different modes of borrowing such as phonological grammar, perception, orthography and their combination is used in adaptation. In the next chapter, we conclude our findings and attempt to reach a preliminary model of adaptation for Tamil Loanwords. 95 CHAPTER FIVE Conclusion 5.1 Main Findings In the preceding chapters, we attempted to account for the adaptation patterns using a combination of the dominant approaches in loanword adaptation. Our findings indicate that it is difficult to subscribe to solely one point of view to account for the data obtained. One possible reason is that the data obtained from Tucker(1986) comprises of adaptations from different contexts. The main findings for phoneme mapping accounted for are as follows: a) Consistent with Paradis (1995), deletion of information is seldom encountered in our adaptation cases. b) Appeal has to be made to phonetics, bilingualism, and universal typological evidence to account for voicing contrast in loans. c) The P-Map hypothesis approach accounts for most patterns with exception of interdental fricatives and voicing. d) A production grammar approach which assumes bilingualism accounts for the surfacing voiced obstruents, gemination of voiceless stops in intervocalic positions and deactivating of postnasal through stratalfaithfulness theory. e) Vowel mapping for long or short monophthongs are in general constant and the unstressed vowel schwa is usually adopted as [a] into Tamil which may point to its status as a default vowel. f) Vowel height differences may play a part in adaptation with high vowels perceived as longer. 96 The main findings for phonotactic repairs are as follows: a) A multitude of strategies are used for adaptation and they can be explained from the production viewpoint appealing to phonological grammar, or stratafaithfulness theory if we assume existence of two distinct grammars, or perception factors with the possibility of interaction with either phonology or orthography. b) Deletion repairs are dispreferred, with epenthesis, coalescence, glide formation and direct adaptation as preferred strategies. c) Epenthetic vowels [u] and [i] are context dependent with [u] surfacing with +labial segments and at the end of the word to bar final obstruents, while [i] elsewhere. d) Direct adaptations could be explained either using strata-faithfulness theory from a production grammar viewpoint or Output-Output correspondence approaches by taking account for orthographic influences. e) Coalescence, adaptations of vowels as non-complex, and conversion of vowels as glides are best explained using perception. f) Epenthesis repairs are mostly due to phonological grammar of Tamil. g) Finally, deletion repairs can be attributed to perception or orthographic factors. Based on the above findings we are able to propose a model of adaptation for English-Tamil loans. 5.2 Model of Adaptation Based on our data, a possible model of loan adaptation which uses the tools from the different approaches is as below: 97 27) Model of Loanword Adaptation Speaker‘s Grammar English Forms Orthographic Representation Phonological Representation Loan Forms Perceptual Grammar Input Phonetic Representation Phonological Grammar Output Orthographic Knowledge The input of adaptation can take into account of either orthographic, phonological and/or phonetic representation of the source which is then either processed by the perceptual grammar, phonological grammar and/or orthographic grammar of Tamil by the speaker. Thus, we conclude that to account for the data in our study, we need to appeal to more than one of the approaches of loan adaptation. 5.3 Future Studies More studies can be conducted to corroborate our account of loan adaptation in Tamil. 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IDENT (MANNER): Output correspondents have the same specification for manner of articulation as input correspondents (McCarthy & Prince 1995). IDENT (PLACE): Output correspondents have the same specification for place as the input (McCarthy & Prince 1995). IDENT (VOICE): Output correspondents have the same specification for voice as input correspondents (Hale & Reiss 1998) LINEARITY-IO: The output reflects the precedence structure of the input, and vice versa (McCarthy & Prince 1995). MAX (MORA): Every mora in the input has an output correspondent (Lin 1997). MAX: Every segment of the input has a correspondent in the output (no phonological deletion). (McCarthy & Prince 1995). 106 Markedness Constraints *#_ (RETROFLEXED): No retroflexed segments in word initial positions. *CODAOBSTRUENT: An obstruent in a coda position is unlicensed (Piggott 2003). *COMPLEX: No more than one C or V may associate to any syllable position node (Prince & Smolensky 1993). *COMPLEXONSET: Assign one violation mark for every complex onset (Golston 1996). *INITIAL/ FINAL r: No word initial or final [r]. *NC: No nasal plus voiceless obstruent sequences (Pater 1999). INTER-V-VOICE: Single Intervocalic consonants are voiced NO DIPHTHONGS: Two tautosyllabic moras linked to two distinct vowels prohibited (Rosenthall 1997). NO LONG VOWELS: Two moras linked to one vocalic root node prohibited. (Rosenthall 1997, Borowsky & Harvey 1997). VOICED OBSTRUENT PROHIBITION (VOP): *[+voice, -son] (Kager 1999). 107 Part 2: Transcribed Data Entry 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 English to account for to write accounts accountant accident october agreement to write an agreement to make an agreement to acknowledge acknowledgement against account to account for to write accounts accountant uncle assembly to assess assessment to give an assessment to make an assessment to assign assignment to give an assignment Dictionary Entry əˈkaʊnt əˈkaʊnts əˈkaʊn.tənt ˈæk.sɪ.dənt ɒkˈtəʊ.bər əˈgriː.mənt əˈgriː.mənt əˈgriː.mənt əkˈnɒl.ɪdʒ əkˈnɒl.ɪdʒ.mənt əˈgent st əˈkaʊnt əˈkaʊnt əˈkaʊnts əˈkaʊn.tənt ˈʌŋ.kl əˈsem.bli əˈses əˈses.mənt əˈses.mənt əˈses.mənt əˈsaɪn əˈsaɪn.mənt əˈsaɪn.mənt 108 Tamil Orthography akkaʋuɳʈ paɳɳu akkaʋuɳʈs eɻutu akkaʋuɳʈaɳʈ akciʈenʈ akʈoopaɾ akɾiimenʈ akɾiimenʈ eɻutu akɾiimenʈ paɳɳu aknulaʈdʒ paɳɳu aknulaʈdʒmenʈ akeensʈ akauɳʈ akauɳʈ paɳɳu akauɳʈs eɻutu akauɳʈanʈ aŋkiɭ acempiɭi aces paɳɳu acesmenʈ acesmenʈ koʈu acesmenʈ pooʈu acain paɳɳu acainmanʈ acainmanʈ koʈu 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 əˈsəʊ.si.eɪt əˌsəʊ.siˈeɪ.ʃən ˈʌt.ər blæk ˈʌt.ər ˈfeɪ.ljər əˈtend əˈten.dənt əˈtest ˌæt.esˈteɪ.ʃən əˈtæk əˈtæk əˈtend əˈten.dənt ədˈmɪt ədˈmɪʃ.ən ədˈmɪʃ.ən ədˈmɪʃ.ən ədˈmɪʃ.ən əˈdres əˈdres əˈtræk.tɪv ˈæt.ləs ˈæd.və.keɪt ˈæd.və.taɪ.zɪŋ ˈæd.və.taɪz ədˈvɜː.tɪs.mənt ədˈvɑːnt s to associate association utter black utter failure to attend attendant to attest attestation attack to attack to attend attendant to admit admission to get admission to give admission to get admission address to address attractive atlas advocate advertising to advertise advertisement advance 109 acoocijeeʈ paɳɳu acoociyeeʂan aʈʈaɾ pɭaak aʈʈaɾ feeyiliyaɾ aʈʈanʈ paɳɳu aʈʈanʈanʈ aʈʈasʈ paɳɳu aʈʈasʈeeʂan aʈʈaak aʈʈaak paɳɳu aʈʈenʈ paɳɳu aʈʈenʈanʈ aʈmiʈ paɳɳu aʈmiʂan aʈmiʂan kiʈai aʈmiʂan koʈu aʈmiʂan vaaŋku aʈɾas aʈɾas paɳɳu aʈɾaakʈiʋ aʈlas aʈʋakeeʈ aʈʋaɾʈaiciŋ aʈʋaɾʈais paɳɳu aʈʋaɾʈaismenʈ aʈʋaans 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 ədˈvɑːnt s ədˈvɑːnt s ədˈvaɪz ədˈvaɪz ədˈvaɪz ədˈvaɪz əˈdʒʌst ˈæd.ʌlts ˈəʊn.li əˈtɒm.ɪk ˈen.ə.dʒi əˈtɒm.ɪk paʊər əˈtɒm.ɪk ˈsteɪ.ʃən əˈtɜː.ni əˈdɪʃ.ən.əl ˈmædʒ.ɪ.streɪt əˈtend əˈten.dənt s əˈten.dənt s əˈten.dənt s ˈredʒ.ɪ.stər ˌʌn.dəˈgraʊnd ˌʌn.dəˈlaɪn ˈʌn.də.weər ˌʌn.dəˈstænd ˌʌn.dɪˈvel.əpt ˈeə.ri.ə ˌʌn.ɪmˈplɔɪ.mənt ɔːˈθɒr.ɪ.ti ɔːˈθɒr.ɪ.ti ʌnˈnætʃ.ər.əl to give an advance (of money) to advance (as an army) advise to ask for advice to give advice to advise to adjust adults only atomic energy atomic power atomic station attorney additional magistrate to attend to give attendance to mark attendance attendance register underground underline underwear to understand undeveloped area unemployment authority authority unnatural 110 aʈʋaans koʈu aʈʋaans paɳɳu aʈʋais aʈʋais keeɭ aʈʋais koʈu aʈʋais paɳɳu aʈdʒasʈ paɳɳu aʈalʈs onli aʈaamik enaɾdʒi aʈaamik pavaɾ aʈaamik sʈeeʂan aʈaaɾni aʈiʂanal maadʒisʈiɾeeʈ aʈenʈ paɳɳu aʈenʈans koʈu aʈenʈans pooʈu aʈenʈans ɾidʒistaɾ aɳʈaɾkiɾaʋuɳʈ aɳʈaɾliin paɳɳu aɳʈaɾʋeeɾ aɳʈaɾsʈaanʈ paɳɳu aɳʈeʋalapʈ eɾijaa aɳjempɭaajmenʈ attaaɾiʈʈi attaaɾiʈi anneeccuɾal 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 ʌp tʊ deɪt əˌpen.dɪˈsaɪ.tɪs əˈpiːl əˈpiːl əˈpəʊz ˌɒp.əˈzɪʃ.ən ˌɒp.əˈzɪʃ.ən ˈpɑː.ti əˈpriː.ʃi.eɪt əˈpruːvər əˈpruː.vəl əˈpruː.vəl əˈpruː.vəl əˈpren.tɪs əˈpren.tɪs .ʃɪp əˈplɔːz əˈplɔːz ˌæp.lɪˈkeɪ.ʃən ˌæp.lɪˈkeɪ.ʃən ˌæp.lɪˈkeɪ.ʃən ˌæp.lɪˈkeɪ.ʃən fɔːm əˈplaɪ ˈɒb.dʒɪkt(n) /əbˈdʒekt(v) əbˈdʒekt əbˈdʒek.ʃən əbˈstrʌkt əbˈstrʌk.ʃən up to date appendicitis appeal to appeal to oppose opposition opposition party to appreciate approver approval to give (one's) approval to get (one's) approval apprentice apprenticeship applause to get applause application to give an application (for something) to apply (for something) application form to apply object to object objection to obstruct obstruction 111 ap ʈu ʈeeʈ appanʈisaiʈʈis appiil appiil paɳɳu appoos paɳɳu appoosiʂan appoosiʂan paaɾʈi aprisijeeʈ paɳɳu apɾuuʋaɾ apɾuuʋal apɾuuʋal koʈu apɾuuʋal vaaŋku apɾenʈis apɾenʈisʂip apɭaas apɭaas kiʈai apɭikeeʂan apɭikeeʂan koʈu apɭikeeʂan pooʈu apɭikeeʂan paaɾm apɻii paɳɳu apdʒekʈ apdʒekʈ paɳɳu apdʒekʂan apsʈɾakʈ paɳɳu apsʈɾakʂan 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 ʌpˈsteəz (br)/ ˈsterz (us) ˈʌp.set ʌpˈset ʌpˈset əˈbɔː.ʃən ˌæf.əˈdeɪ.vɪt əˈfekt əˈfekt əˈfekt ˈʌm.paɪər ˈʌm.paɪər ˈʌm.paɪər æmˈbæs.ə.dər ˈæm.ə.tər ˈæm.ə.tər aɪən bɒks aɪən seɪf ˈɜː.dʒənt əˈrɪəz əˈrest əˈrest əˈreɪndʒ.mənt əˈreɪndʒ.mənt əˈreɪndʒ əˈraɪv əˈraɪ.vəl upstairs upset (racing) to become upset to upset abortion affidavit (legal) affect to become affected to affect umpire to become an umpire to umpire ambassador amateur amateur iron box (an iron for pressing clothes) iron safe urgent arrears arrest to arrest arrangement to make an arrangement to arrange to arrive arrival 112 apsʈeeɾs apseʈ apseʈ aaku apseʈ paɳɳu apaaɾʂan afiʈaaʋiʈ afekʈ afekʈ aaku afekʈ paɳɳu ampajaɾ ampajaɾ aaku ampajaɾ paɳɳu ampaaciʈar ameccaɾ amejcuuɾ ajaɾnpaaks ajaɾnseef aɾdʒeɳʈ aɾijaɾs aɾesʈ aɾesʈ paɳɳu aɾeeɲdʒmanʈ aɾeeɲdʒmanʈ paɳɳu aɾeeɲ paɳɳu aɾaiʋ paɳɳu aɾaiʋal 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 ælˈmaɪ.rə ˈæl.ə.dʒi əˈlaʊ əˈlaʊ.ənt s əˈlɒt əˈlɒt.mənt ˌæl.j ʊˈmɪn.i.əm ə-ˈläp-ə-thē aʊər ˈʌv.ən əˈvɔɪd əˈwɔːd aʊt ˈaʊtˌdɔːr ˈʃuː.tɪŋ ˈaʊt.wəd ʃəʊ ˌaʊtˈsaɪd ˈaʊt.haʊs aʊnt s aʊnt s glɑːs əˈveɪl ˈeɪ.li.əs ˌʌn.kənˈdɪʃ.ən.əl ʌnˈkɒn.t ʃəs ʌnˈkɒn.t ʃəs ʌnˈtaɪm.li ʌnˈplez.ənt almirah allergy to allow allowance to allot allotment alumenium allopathy hour oven to avoid award out outdoor shooting (film making) outward show outside out house ounce ounce glass to avail alias unconditional unconscious to become unconscious untimely unpleasant 113 alamaaɾi alaɾdʒi alaʋ paɳɳu alaʋans alaaʈ paɳɳu alaaʈmenʈ aluminijam aloopati aʋaɾ aʋan aʋaajʈ paɳɳu aʋaaɾʈ aʋuʈ aʋuʈʈooɾ ʂuʈʈiŋ aʋuʈʋarʈ ʂoo aʋuʈsaiʈ aʋuʈhaʋus aʋuns aʋuns kiɭaas aʋeejl paɳɳu aliijaas ankaɳʈiʂanal ankaaɳʂajas ankaaɳʂajas aaku anʈaimli anplasanʈ 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180 ʌnˈplez.ənt ʌnˈfɪt ˌʌn.ɪmˈplɔɪ.mənt ˌʌn.rɪˈlaɪə.bl ʌnˈləʊd ænˈeks ænˈeks əˈnaʊnt s əˈnaʊnt .smənt ˈædʒ.ɪ.teɪt ˌædʒ.ɪˈteɪ.ʃən ˌædʒ.ɪˈteɪ.ʃən əˈʃɔːr əˈʃɔː.rənt s əˈstrɒl.ə.dʒər əˈsɪst əˈsɪs.tənt əˈses əˈses.mənt əˈses.mənt əˈses.mənt əˈsaɪn əˈsaɪn.mənt əˈsaɪn.mənt əˈsaɪn.mənt ˌɒk.jʊˈpeɪ.ʃən unpleasant unfit unemployment unreliable to unload annex to annex to announce announcement to agitate agitation agitation to assure assurance astrologer to assist assistant to assess assessment to give an assessment to make an assessment to assign assignment to give an assingment assignment occupation 114 anplesanʈ anfiʈ anjempɭaajmenʈ anɾiliijapiɭ anlooʈ paɳɳu aneks aneks paɳɳu anauns paɳɳu anaunsmenʈ adʒiʈʈeeʈ paɳɳu adʒiʈʈeeʂan adʒiʈeeʂan aʂjuuɾ paɳɳu aʂjuuɾans asʈɾaaladʒaɾ asicʈ paɳɳu asisʈanʈ ases paɳɳu asesmenʈ asesmenʈ koʈu asesmenʈ pooʈu asain paɳɳu asainmanʈ asainmanʈ koʈu asainmenʈ aakkupeeʂan 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 ˈɒk.jʊ.paɪ ˈæk.sl ækt ækt ˈæk.tər ˈæk.tɪŋ ˈæk.ʃən ˈɔːk.ʃən ˈæk.ʃən ˈɔːk.ʃən ˈæk.sɪ.dənt ˈæk.sl əkˈsel.ə.reɪ.tər ˈɔː.gəst ˈæŋ.gləʊ ˈɪn.di.ən ˈæŋ.gl ˈæŋ.gl aɪən ˈæt.əm bɒm ˈɔː.təʊ ˈɔː.tə.grɑːf ˈɔː.tə.grɑːf ˌɔː.təˈmæt.ɪk ˌɔː.təˈmæt.ɪ.kli ˌɔː.təˈmæt.ɪk ɔː.təʊ ˈrɪk.ʃɔː ˈæt.əm bɒm to occupy axle act to act actor acting action auction to take action to auction accident axle accelerator (automobile) August Anglo Indian angle angle iron (construction) atom bomb auto (short for auto-rickshaw) autograph to get an autograph automatic automatically automatic signal auto-rickshaw atom bomb 115 aakkupai paɳɳu aakcal aakʈ aakʈ paɳɳu aakʈaɾ aakʈiŋ aakʂan aakʂan aakʂan eʈu aakʂan paɳɳu aaksiʈenʈ aaksil aaksilaɾeeʈaɾ aakasʈ aaŋkiloo inʈijan aaŋkiɭ aaŋkiɭ ajaɾn aaʈʈam paam aaʈʈoo aaʈʈookiɾaap aaʈʈookiɾaap vaaŋku aaʈʈoomaaʈik aaʈʈoomaaʈik aaka aaʈʈoomaaʈik siknal aaʈʈooɾikʂaa aaʈam paam 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 232 ˈɔː.dɪt.ər ˌɔː.dɪˈtɔː.ri.əm ˈɔː.dɪt ˈɔː.dɪt.ər ˈɔː.di.ənt s ɒn ˈɔː.θər.aɪz ˌɒfˈset ˈɒp.ər.eɪt ˌɒp.ərˈeɪ.ʃən ˈæp.l ˈɒp.ər.eɪt ˌɒp.ərˈeɪ.ʃən ˈæb.sənt ˈæb.sənt ˈɒf.ɪs ɒf ˌɒfˈset ɒf ˈɒf.ər ˈɒf.ər ˈæm.plɪ.faɪ.ər ˈæm.bjʊ.lənt s ˈæm.bjʊ.lənt s ˈɒm.lət ˈɑr.mə.tʃər auditor auditorium to audit auditor audience to switch on to authorise offset (printing) to operate operation apple to operate operation absent to absent (oneself) office off offset (printing) to switch off offer to offer amplifier ambulance ambulance omelet armature (automobile) 116 aaʈiʈʈaɾ aaʈiʈʈooɾijam aaʈiʈ paɳɳu aaʈiʈaɾ aaʈijans aaɳ paɳɳu aattoɾais paɳɳu aapceʈ aappaɾeeʈ paɳɳu aappaɾeeʂan aappiɭ aapɾeeʈ paɳɳu aapɾeeqan aapsanʈ aapsanʈ aaku aapis aaf aafceʈ aaf paɳɳu aafaɾ aafaɾ paɳɳu aampɭipaijaɾ aampulans aampulens aamleʈ aameccaɾ 233 234 235 236 237 238 239 240 241 242 243 244 245 246 247 248 249 250 251 252 253 254 255 256 257 258 ɔɪl ɔɪl ˈen.dʒɪn ˈɔɪnt.mənt ˈɑːg.juː ˈɑːg.jʊ.mənt ˈɔː.kɪ.strə ɑːts ɑːts ˈkɒl.ɪdʒ ˈɔː.dər ˈɔː.dər ˈɔː.dər fɔːm ˈɔː.dəl.i ˈɔː.dərz ˈɔː.dərz ˈɔː.dɪ.nə.ri ˈɑː.tɪst ˈɑː.mi ˈɑr.mə.tʃər hɑrˈmoʊ.ni.əm hɑrˈmoʊ.ni.əm ˈɑː.sən.ɪk ˈɒr.ɪndʒ ˈær.əʊ .ruːt ˈɔːl.tər ˈɒl.tər ˌɒl.təˈreɪ.ʃən oil oil engine ointment to argue argument orchestra arts arts college order to order order form orderly (a male attendant) orders to issue orders (administration) ordinary artist army armature (automobile) harmonium to play the harmonium arsenic orange arrowroot altar (as in a church) to alter alteration 117 aajil aajil endʒin aajinʈmenʈ aaɾkjuu paɳɳu aaɾkjuumenʈ aaɾkesʈɾaa aaɾʈs aaɾʈs kaaleedʒ aaɾʈaɾ aaɾʈaɾ paɳɳu aaɾʈaɾ paaɾam aaɾʈaɾli aaɾʈaɾs aaɾʈaɾs pooʈu aaɾʈinaɾi aaɾʈisʈ aaɾmi aaɾmeccaɾ aaɾmoonijam aaɾmoonijam pooʈu aaɾsenik aaɾaɲcu aaɾooɾuuʈ aalʈaɾ aalʈaɾ paɳɳu aalʈaɾeeʂan 259 260 261 262 263 264 265 266 267 268 269 270 271 272 273 274 275 276 277 278 279 280 281 282 283 284 ˈæl.bəm ɔːl raɪt ɑːnt ˈɒn.ərz ˈɒn.ər.ə.ri ˈæʃ.treɪ ˈhɒs.pɪ.təl æsˈbes.tɒs ɪŋk ˈɪŋ.krə.mənt ˈɪŋ.glənd ˈɪŋ.glɪʃ ˈɪd.i.ət ˌɪn.trəˈdjuːs ˌɪn.trəˈdʌk.ʃən ˈɪn.trəst ˈɪn.trəst ˈɪn.də.stri ˈɪn.diə ɪmˈpres.ɪv ɪmˈpres.ɪv ɪmˈpreʃ.ən ɪmˈpruːv ɪmˈpruːv ɪmˈpruːv.mənt ɪmˈpruːv.mənt album all right aunt honours honorary ash tray hospital asbestos ink increment England English idiot to introduce introduction interest to take an interest industry India impressive to be impressive impression to improve (as a situation) to improve improvement to show improvement 118 aalpam aalɾaiʈ aanʈi aanaɾs aanaɾaɾi aaʂʈiɾee aaspattiɾi aaspesʈaas iŋk iŋkiɾimenʈ iŋkilaantu iŋkiliʂ iʈijaʈ iɳʈɾaʈjuus paɳɳu iɳʈɾaʈakʂan iɳʈɾasʈ iɳʈɾasʈ eʈu iɳʈɾasʈaɾi intijaa impɾaciʋ impɾaciʋ aaka iɾu impɾaʂʂan impɾuuʋ aaku impɾuuʋ paɳɳu impɾuuʋmaɳʈ impɾuuʋmaɳʈ kaaʈʈu 285 286 287 288 289 290 291 292 293 294 295 296 297 298 299 300 301 302 303 304 305 306 307 308 309 310 ɪmˈpres ˈɪm.pɔːt (v)/ɪmˈpɔːt (n) ɪmˈpɔːt ˌɪm.pəˈzɪʃ.ən ˌɪm.pəˈzɪʃ.ən ˈɪm.ɪ.teɪt ˌɪm.ɪˈteɪ.ʃən ˈɪm.ɪdʒ ˈɪr.ɪ.geɪt ɪˈreg.jə.lər ɪˈreg.jə.lə.li ɪˈreg.jə.lər ˈreɪ.di.əm tɪpt ɪˈvent ɪn ˈɪn.kʌm ˈɪn.kʌm tæks ɪnt ʃ ɪnt ʃ teɪp ˈɪn.sʌlt (n)/ɪnˈsʌlt (v) ɪnˈsʌlt ɪnˈʃɔː.rənt s ɪnˈʃɔː.rənt s ˌɪn.təˈnæʃ.ən.əl ˌɪn.təˈmiː.di.ət ˈɪn.tə.vəl to impress import to import imposition to give an imposition to imitate imitation image to irrigate irregular irregularly to be irregular radium tipped event in income income tax inch inch tape insult to insult insurance to take an insurance international intermediate interval 119 impɾes paɳɳu impooɾʈ impooɾʈ paɳɳu impoosiʂan impoosiʂan koʈu imiʈeeʈ paɳɳu imiʈeeʂan imeedʒ iɾɾikeeʈ paɳɳu iɾɾekulaɾ iɾɾekulaɾ aaka iɾɾekulaɾ aaka iɾu iɾiʈijamʈip iʋeɳʈu in inkam inkam ʈaaks inc inc ʈeep incalʈ incalʈ paɳɳu incuuɾans incuuɾans eʈu inʈaɾneeʂanal inʈaɾmiiʈijaʈ inʈaɾʋal 311 312 313 314 315 316 317 318 319 320 321 322 323 324 325 326 327 328 329 330 331 332 333 334 335 336 ˈɪn.tə.vjuː(n)/ˈɪn.tə.vjuː(v) ˈɪn.tə.vjuː ˈɪn.tə.vjuː ˈɪn.də.stri ɪnˈdʌs.tri.ə.lɪst ˌɪn.dɪˈpen.dənt ˌɪn.dɪˈpen.dənt.li ˈɪn.tɪ.mət.li ˈɪn.tɪ.mət ˈɪn.tɪ.meɪt ˌɪn.tɪˈmeɪ.ʃən ˌɪn.tɪˈmeɪ.ʃən ˈɪn.deks ˈɪn.deks ɪnˈtel.ɪ.dʒənt ˌɪnˈdɔːr ˌɪnˈdɔːr geɪm ˌɪn.fluˈen.zə ɪnˈfleɪ.ʃən ˈɪn.lənd ˌɪn.vɪˈteɪ.ʃən ɪnˈvest ɪnˈvest .mənt ɪnˌves.tɪˈgeɪ.ʃən ɪnˈvaɪt ˈɪn.ɪŋz interview to give an interview to interview industry industrialist independent independently intimately to be intimate to intimate intimation to give an intimation index to index intelligent indoor indoor game influenza inflation inland invitation to invest investment investigation to invite innings (cricket) 120 inʈaɾʋijuu inʈaɾʋijuu koʈu inʈaɾʋijuu paɳɳu inʈasʈɾi inʈasʈiɾijalisʈ inʈipenʈanʈ inʈipenʈanʈ aaka inʈimeeʈ aaka inʈimeeʈ aaka iɾu inʈimeeʈ paɳɳu inʈimeeʂan inʈimeeʂan koʈu inʈeks inʈeks paɳɳu inʈelidʒanʈ inʈooɾ inʈooɾ keem inpiɭujencaa infleeʂan inlaanʈ inʋiʈeeʂan inʋesʈ paɳɳu inʋesʈmenʈ inʋesʈikeeʂan inʋaiʈ paɳɳu inniŋs 337 338 339 340 341 342 343 344 345 346 347 348 349 350 351 352 353 354 355 356 357 358 359 360 361 362 ɪnˈdʒekt ɪnˈdʒek.ʃən ˌen.dʒɪˈnɪər ˌen.dʒɪˈnɪə.rɪŋ ɪnˈdʒekt ɪnˈdʒek.ʃən ɪnˈdʒek.ʃən ˈiː.kwəl ˈiːv.nɪŋ ɪˈvent ˈiː.zi ˈiː.zɪ.li iːst jiːst ˈiː.zi ˈiː.zi tʃeər wʊd wʊd tʃeər ˈwʊd.wɜːk wʊl ˈwʊl.ən eg ˈek.sə.saɪz ˈek.sə.saɪz ˈek.səl.ənt ˈek.səl.ənt.li to inject injection engineer engineering to inject injection to give an injection equal evening event easy easily east yeast easy easy chair wood wooden chair woodwork wool woolen egg exercise to take exercise excellent excellently 121 indʒakʈ paɳɳu indʒakʂan indʒinijaɾ indʒinijaɾiŋ indʒekʈ paɳɳu indʒekʂan indʒekʂan koʈu iikʋal iiʋiniŋ iiʋeɳʈ iidʒi iidʒi aaka iisʈ iisʈ iisi iisiceeɾ uʈ uʈʈanceeɾ uʈʋaɾk ul ullan ek ekcaɾcais ekcaɾcais eʈu ekcalaɳʈ ekcalaɳʈ aaka 363 364 365 366 367 368 369 370 371 372 373 374 375 376 377 378 379 380 381 382 383 384 385 386 387 388 ɪgˈzækt ɪgˈzækt .li ɪkˈskjuːz ɪkˈskjuːz ɪkˈskɜː.ʃən ɪksˈtʃeɪnd ʒ ɪksˈtʃeɪnd ʒ ɪksˈtʃeɪnd ʒ reɪt ˈek.səl.ənt ˈek.strə ˈek.strə ɪkˈstend ɪkˈsten.t ʃən ɪkˈsten.t ʃən ɪkˈspreʃ.ən ɪkˈspres ɪkˈspreʃ.ən ɪkˈspres ˌek.spləˈneɪ.ʃən ɪkˈspleɪn ˈek.spɜːt ˈek.spɜːt əˈpɪn.jən ɪkˈsper.ɪ.mənt ɪkˈspreʃ.ən ɪkˈspres ɪkˈspleɪn exact exactly to ask to be excused to excuse excursion exchange to exchange exchange rate excellent extra extra (a minor/actress) to extend extension to ask for extension expression to express expression to express explanation to explain expert expert opinion experiment expression to express to explain 122 ekcaakʈ ekcaakʈ aaka ekskjuus keeɭ ekskjuus paɳɳu ekskaɾʂan ekcceendʒ ekcceendʒ paɳɳu ekcceendʒ ɾeeʈ ekcalenʈ eksʈɾaa eksʈɾaa eksʈenʈ paɳɳu eksʈenʂan eksʈenʂan keeɭ ekspraʂan ekspras paɳɳu ekspreʂan ekspres paɳɳu ekspɭaneeʂan ekspɭeen paɳɳu eksparʈ eksparʈ opinijan eksparimenʈ ekspiras ekspiras paɳɳu ekspiɭeejn paɳɳu 389 390 391 392 393 394 395 396 397 398 399 400 401 402 403 404 405 406 407 408 409 410 411 412 413 414 ɪkˈspɪə.ri.ənt s ɪkˈspent .sɪv ˈek.spɔːt (n)/ ɪkˈspɔːt (v) ɪkˈspɔːt ɪkˈspəʊz ɪkˈspəʊ.ʒər ˈeks.reɪ ˈeks.reɪ eks-ˈsɜː.vɪs ˌeksˈsɜː.vɪs.mən ekˈses ɪgˈzækt .li ɪgˈzækt .li ɪgˈzæm ɪgˈzæm ɪgˈzæm.ɪn ɪgˌzæm.ɪˈneɪ.ʃən ɪgˈzek.jʊ.tɪv ɪgˈzek.jʊ.tɪv ˌen.dʒɪˈnɪər ˈek.sɪt ɪgˈzɪb.ɪt ˌek.sɪˈbɪʃ.ən ˈek.sɪ .mə ˈek.saɪz (n)/ ekˈsaɪz (v) ˌiː.kəˈnɒm.ɪks eɪtʃ piː experience expensive export to export to expose exposure X ray to take an X ray exservice… exservicemen excess exactly exaclty (used as affirmative reply) exam to write an exam to examine examination executive executive engineer exit to exhibit exhibition eczema excise economics H.P. (Horse Power) 123 ekspiirijans ekspensiʋ ekspoorʈ ekspoorʈ paɳɳu ekspoos paɳɳu ekspoosar eksree eksree eʈu ekssarʋiis ekssarʋiismen eksas eksaakʈ aaka eksaakʈli eksaam eksaam eɻutu eksaamin paɳɳu eksaamineeʂan eksikjuuʈiʋ eksikjuuʈiʋ endʒinijar eksiʈ eksipiʈ paɳɳu eksipiʂan eksiimaa eksais ekanumiks ec pi 415 416 417 418 419 420 421 422 423 424 425 426 427 428 429 430 431 432 433 434 435 436 437 438 439 440 ˈen.dʒɪn ˌen.dʒɪˈnɪər ˈed.ɪ.tər ˈed.ɪ.tɪŋ ˌed.ɪˈtɔː.ri.əl ˈed.ɪt ɪˈdɪʃ.ən ɪˈfɪʃ.ənt em el eɪ em es siː em eɪ em əʊ em piː ˈemp .ti ˈemp .ti ɪmˈbrɔɪ.dər ɪmˈbrɔɪ.dər.i ɪmˈplɔɪ ɪmˈplɔɪ.mənt ɪmˈplɔɪ.mənt ɪksˈtʃeɪnd ʒ ɪmˈplɔɪ.iː ˈem.bə.si ɪmˈbrɔɪ.dər ɪmˈpɔː.ri.əm ɪˈmɜː.dʒənt .si ɪˈmɜː.dʒənt .si engine engineer editor editing editorial to edit edition efficient M.L.A. (member of legislative assembly) M.Sc. (Master of Science) M.A. (Master of Arts) M.O. (Money order) M.P. (Member of Parliament) empty to empty to embroider embroidery to employ employment employment exchange employee embassy to embroider emporium emergency to declare a state of emergency 124 eɲcin eɲcinijar eʈiʈʈar eʈiʈʈiŋ eʈiʈʈoorijal eʈiʈ paɳɳu eʈiʂan efiʂjanʈ em el ee em es si em ee em oo em pi emʈi emʈi paɳɳu emppɾaajʈaɾ paɳɳu emppɾaajʈaɾi empɭaaj paɳɳu empɭaajmenʈ empɭaajmenʈ eksceeɲc empɭaaji empaci empiɾaajʈaɾ paɳɳu empooɾijam emaɾdʒenci emaɾdʒenci ʈikɭeeɾ paɳɳu 441 442 443 444 445 446 447 448 449 450 451 452 453 454 455 456 457 458 459 460 461 462 463 464 465 466 ɪˈməʊ.ʃən.əl ɪˈrekt ɪˈrek.ʃən ɪˌlekˈtrɒn.ɪk ɪˌlekˈtrɪs.ɪ.ti ɪˈlek.trɪk ɪˈlek.trɪk treɪn ɪˈlæs.tɪk ˌel.ɪˈmen.tər.i ˌel.ɪˈmen.tər.i skuːl ˈel.ɪ.dʒə.bl ˈel.ɪ.dʒə.bl ɪˈlekt ɪˈlek.ʃən ˈev.ər ˈsɪl.vər ɪˈvɪkt ɪˈvɪk.ʃən ˈev.ɪ.dənt s ˈev.ɪ.dənt s en dʒiː əʊ en siː siː ɪnˈkwaɪər ɪnˈkʌr.ɪdʒ ɪnˈkʌr.ɪdʒ.mənt ɪnˈgeɪdʒ ɪnˈgeɪdʒ.mənt emotional to erect erection electronic electricity electric electric train elastic elementary elementary school eligible to be eligible to elect election eversilver to evict eviction evidence to give evidence N.G.O. (Non-gazetted officer) N.C.C. (National Cadet Corps) to enquire to encourage encouragement to engage engagement 125 emooʂanal eɾekʈ paɳɳu eɾekʂan elakʈɾaanik elakʈɾiciʈʈi elakʈiɾik elakʈiɾik ʈiɾeen elaasʈik elimenʈaɾi elimenʈaɾi skuul elidʒipiɭ elidʒipiɭ aaka iɾu elekʈ paɳɳu elekʂan eʋaɾcilʋaɾ eʋikʈ paɳɳu eʋikʂan eʋiʈens eʋiʈens koʈu en dʒI oo en si si enkʋajaɾ paɳɳu enkaɾeedʒ paɳɳu enkaaɾedʒmenʈ enkeedʒ paɳɳu enkeedʒmenʈ 467 468 469 470 471 472 473 474 475 476 477 478 479 480 481 482 483 484 485 486 487 488 489 490 491 492 ɪnˈkwaɪər ɪnˈkwaɪər ˈen.trənt s ˈen.tri en.təˈteɪn en.təˈteɪn.mənt en.təˈteɪn ˈen.tə.praɪz ˈen.tə.praɪ.zɪŋ ˈen.tər end ɪnˈlɑːdʒ ɪnˈlɑːdʒ.mənt ɪnˈlɑːdʒ.mənt ˈen.və.ləʊp ˈen.dʒɪn ˌen.dʒɪˈnɪər ɪnˈhɑːnt s ɪˈnæm.əl ˈen.ə.mi ˈed.jʊ.keɪt ˌed.jʊˈkeɪ.ʃən ˈes.kɔːt (n)/ ɪˈskɔːt (v) ɪˈskɔːt ɪˈskeɪp ɪˈstæb.lɪʃ to enquire to hold an enquiry entrance to make an entry to entertain entertainment to entertain enterprise enterprising to enter end to enlarge enlargement to make an enlargement (photography) envelope engine engineer to enhance enamel enemy to educate education escort to escort to escape to establish 126 enkojaɾ paɳɳu enkojaɾi ʋai enʈɾans enʈaɾi pooʈu enʈaɾʈejin paɳɳu enʈaɾʈejinmenʈ enʈaɾʈeen paɳɳu enʈaɾpɾais enʈaɾpɾaisiŋ enʈaɾ paɳɳu enʈu enlaaɾdʒ paɳɳu enlaaɾdʒmenʈ enlaaɾdʒmenʈ pooʈu enʋelap endʒin endʒinjaɾ enhaans paɳɳu enamal enimi edʒikeeʈ paɳɳu edʒikeeʂan eskaaɾʈ eskaaɾʈ paɳɳu eskeep paɳɳu esʈaapiliʂ paɳɳu 493 494 495 496 497 498 499 500 501 502 503 504 505 506 507 508 509 510 511 512 513 514 515 516 517 518 ɪˈstæb.lɪʃ.mənt ˈes.tɪ.meɪt ˈes.tɪ.meɪt ˈes.tɪ.meɪt ˈes.tɪ.meɪt ɪˈsteɪt ˈeɪ.kər ˈeɪ.prəl eər-kənˈdɪʃ.ənd eər-kənˈdɪʃ.ən eər bʌs eər pəʊst eər fɔːs eər men eər laɪnz eər ˈhəʊ.stes ˈeə.ri.əl ˈeə.ri.ə ˈeə.rə.pleɪn eɪdʒ gruːp ˈeɪ.dʒənt ˈeɪ.dʒənt .si aɪ eɪ es aɪ dʒiː haɪ kɔːt ˈaɪ.təm establishment estimate to give an estimate to estimate to make an estimate estate (plantation) acre April air-conditioned to air-condition airbus air post (airmail) air force airmen airlines airhostess aerial area aeroplane age group agent agency I.A.S. (Indian Administration Service) I.G. (Inspector General) high court item 127 esʈaapiliʂmenʈ esʈimeeʈ esʈimeeʈ koʈu esʈimeeʈ paɳɳu esʈimeeʈ pooʈu esʈeeʈ eekaɾ eepɾal eeɾkaɳʈiʂan eeɾkaɳʈiʂan paɳɳu eeɾpas eeɾpoosʈ eeɾfooɾs eeɾmen eeɾlains eeɾhoosʈas eeɾijal eeɾijaa eeɾoopɭeen eedʒkɾuup eedʒanʈ eedʒansi ai ee es ai dʒii aikooɾʈ aiʈʈam 519 520 521 522 523 524 525 526 527 528 529 530 531 532 533 534 535 536 537 538 539 540 541 542 543 544 ˈaɪ.təm ˈaɪ.təm aɪˈdɪə aɪˈdɪə aɪˈdɪə haɪ rəʊd ˈaɪ.lənd aɪs ˌaɪsˈkriːm ˌaɪsˈbɒks aɪs aɪs əˈpɪn.jən əˈpɪn.jən əˈpɪn.jən əʊ ˈbiː.di.ənt əʊ ˈbiː.di.ənt waɪf waɪər waɪər waɪt ˈwɜːk.ʃɒp əˈrɪdʒ.ɪ.nəl əˌrɪdʒ.ɪˈnæl.ə.ti ˈwʌn.də.fəl ˈəʊn.li wʌnt s mɔːr point by point (item by item) idea to give an idea to plan (lit: to make an idea[item]) high road island ice ice cream ice box to flatter (lit:to place ice) to flatter (lit:to place ice) opinion to ask for opinion to give an opinion obedient to be obedient wife wire to wire (to send a telegram) to be white workshop original originality wonderful only once more 128 aiʈʈam aiʈʈam aaka aiʈijaa aiʈijaa koʈu aiʈijaa paɳɳu aiɾooʈu ailaɳʈ ais aickɾiim aispaaks ais pooʈu ais ʋai oppinijan oppinijan keeɭ oppinijan koʈu opiiʈijanʈ opiiʈijanʈ aaka iɾu ojf ojaɾ ojaɾ paɳɳu ojiʈ aaka iɾu oɾkʂaap oɾidʒinal oɾidʒinaliʈi onʈaɾful onli onsmooɾ 545 546 547 548 549 550 551 552 553 554 555 556 557 558 559 560 561 562 563 564 565 566 567 568 569 570 əʊ keɪ vəʊt h əʊ ˈtel vəʊt vəʊt ˈəʊ.pən ˈəʊ.pən ˈhəʊ.pləs ˌhəʊ.miˈɒp.ə.θi əʊld əʊld eɪdʒ vɒlts həʊld ɒn ˈhoʊld.ɑːl ˈvɒl.tɪdʒ ˈəʊ.vər ˌəʊ.vəˈrækt ˈəʊ.vər ˈəʊ.və.hɔːl ˈəʊ.və.kəʊt ˌəʊ.vəˈdrɔː ˌəʊ.vəˈdjuː ˌəʊ.vəˈteɪk ˈəʊ.və.taɪm ˈəʊ.və.taɪm ˌəʊ.vəˈfləʊ O.K. vote restaurant (lit: hotel) to vote to cast a vote to be open to open hopeless homeopathy old old age volts stop (lit:hold on) holdall (travelling case) voltage over (cricket term) to over act to go too far (over) overhaul overcoat to overdraw overdue to overtake overtime to do overtime overflow 129 oo kee ooʈ ooʈʈal ooʈ paɳɳu ooʈ pooʈu ooppan aaka iɾu ooppan paɳɳu ooplas oomijoopati oolʈ oolʈ eedʒ oolʈs oolʈaan oolʈaal oolʈeedʒ ooʋaɾ ooʋaɾ aakʈ paɳɳu ooʋaɾ aaka poo ooʋaɾaajil ooʋaɾkooʈ ooʋaɾʈaɾaa paɳɳu ooʋaɾʈijuu ooʋaɾʈeek paɳɳu ooʋaɾʈaim ooʋaɾʈaim paɳɳu ooʋaɾfɭoo 571 572 573 574 575 576 577 578 579 580 581 582 583 584 585 586 587 588 589 590 591 592 593 594 595 596 ˌəʊ.vəˈfləʊ əʊn haʊs ˈəʊ.nər kjuː kræk grəˈtjuː.ə.ti krɒp krɒp grɑːf græm grəˈtjuː.ə.ti ˈgrædʒ.u.ət (n)/ ˈgrædʒ.u.eɪt (v) krɒs ˌkrɒsˈkʌn.tri ˌkrɒsˈkwes.tʃən krɒs ˈkrɪm.ɪ.nəl ˈkrɪm.ɪ.nəl kɔːt kriːm griːn griːn ruːm griːs ˈkred.ɪt ˈkred.ɪt ˈkred.ɪt kreɪt to overflow own house owner queue crack (a mad person) gratuity crop (western style gent's hair cut) to have a hair cut (to crop one's hair) graph gram gratuity graduate cross cross country cross question to cross criminal criminal court cream green green room (theatre) grease credit to give credit to credit crate 130 ooʋaɾfɭoo paɳɳu oonhaʋus oonaɾ kjuu kɾaak kɾaaʈjuuʈʈi kɾaap kɾaap paɳɳu kɾaapf kɾaam kɾaadʒujʈi kɾaadʒuʋeeʈ kɾaas ɾaas kaɳʈɾi kɾaas kuʋesʈijan kɾaas paɳɳu kɾiminal kɾiminal kooɾʈ kɾiim kɾiin kɾiin ɾuum kɾiis kɾeʈiʈ kɾeʈiʈ koʈu kɾeʈiʈ paɳɳu kɾeeʈ 597 598 599 600 601 602 603 604 605 606 607 608 609 610 611 612 613 614 615 616 617 618 619 620 621 622 greɪd kreɪt kreɪn kraɪm graɪnd ˈgraɪn.dər klɑːs klɑːs ˌkwɒl.ɪ.fɪˈkeɪ.ʃən ˈkwɒl.ɪ.faɪ kwɪk kwɪz kwiːn klʌb klɒk klɒθ klɑːk ˌklær.ɪˈnet ˌklær.ɪˈnet ˈkləʊ.vər glɑːs glɑːs ˈtʌm.blər ˈglɪs.ər.iːn ˈglɪs.ər.iːn klɪp klɪər grade to crate crane crime to grind grinder class to take a class;to teach a class qualification to qualify quick quiz queen club clock cloth clerk clarinet to play the clarinet clover (card suit) glass glass tumbler glycerine glycerine clip clear 131 kɾeeʈ kɾeeʈ paɳɳu kɾeejn kɾaim kɾainʈ paɳɳu kɾainʈaɾ klaas klaas eʈu kʋaalifikeeʂan kʋaalifai paɳɳu kʋik kʋis kʋiiɲ kɭap kɭaak kɭaat kɭaaɾk kɭaaɾineʈ kɭaaɾineʈ pooʈu kɭaaʋaɾ kɭaas kɭaasʈamɭaɾ kɭicaɾin kɭiciɾin kɭip kɭijaɾ 623 624 625 626 627 628 629 630 631 632 633 634 635 636 637 638 639 640 641 642 643 644 645 646 647 648 klɪər ˈklɪn.ɪk kliːn kliːn ˈkliː.nər kluː kluː kluː ˈgluː.kəʊs ˈgluː.kəʊs ˈklaɪ.mæks ˈklɒr.ə.fɔːm ˈklɔː.rɪ.neɪ.tɪd ˈwɔː.tər ˈklɔː.raɪd ˈkʌz.ən ˈkʌt.ər ˈkʌt.ɪŋ ˈplaɪ.əz ˈkʌt.ɪŋ ˈplaɪ.əz kʌt kʌt piːs kənˈtræk.tər ˈkʌn.tri kənˈdʌk.tər kənˈtræk.tər kənˈdɪʃ.ən kənˈdɪʃ.ən to clear clinic to be clean to clean cleaner (often a lorry driver's assistant) clue to find a clue to give a clue glucose glucose climax chloroform chlorinated water chloride cousin cutter (a trade) cutting pliers cutting pliers to cut cut piece contractor country conductor contractor to condition to make a condition 132 kɭijaɾ paɳɳu kɭinik kɭiin aaka iɾu kɭiin paɳɳu kɭiinaɾ kɭu kɭu kiʈai kɭu koʈu kɭuukkoos kɭuukoos kɭaimaaks kɭooɾapaam kɭooɾineeʈʈaʈ ʋaaʈʈaɾ kɭooɾaiʈ kacin kaʈʈaɾ kaʈʈiŋpɭeejaɾ kaʈʈiŋpiɭaijaɾ kaʈ paɳɳu kaʈpiis kaɳʈɾaakʈaɾ kaɳʈɾi kaɳʈakʈaɾ kaɳʈiɾaakʈaɾ kaɳʈiʂan paɳɳu kaɳʈiʂan pooʈu 649 650 651 652 653 654 655 656 657 658 659 660 661 662 663 664 665 666 667 668 669 670 671 672 673 674 kənˈdem kənˈsjuːm kənˈsjuː.mər ˈkæθ.əl.ɪk ˈkʌn.tri kʌp ˈkʌ.bəd ˈkʌ.bəd gʌm kəmˈpjuː.tər kəmˈpleɪnt kəmˈpleɪnt kəmˈpleɪn ˈkɒm.paʊndər ˈkʌm.pə.ni kəmˈpɒz.ɪ.tər kəmˈpɑːt.mənt kəmˈpjuː.tər kəmˈpiːt kəmˈpel ˈkʌm.pə.ni kəmˈpeər kəmˈbaɪn ˈkɒm.pɒst kəˈmjuː.nə.ti kəˈmjuː.nə.ti ˈsen.tər to condemn to consume consumer catholic country cup cupboard cupboard gum computer complaint to give a complaint to complain compounder company compositor ( a trade in printing) compartment computer to compete to compel company to compare to combine compost (agriculture) community community center 133 kaɳʈem paɳɳu kaɳsjuum paɳɳu kaɳsjuumaɾ kattoolik kantiɾi kap appooɾʈ apooɾʈ kam ampjuuʈʈaɾ kampɭeejinʈ kampɭeejinʈ koʈu kampɭeen paɳɳu kampaʋuɳʈaɾ kampani kampaaciʈʈaɾ kampaaɾʈmenʈ ampijuuʈʈaɾ kampiiʈ paɳɳu kampel paɳɳu kampeni kampeeɾ paɳɳu kampain paɳɳu kampoosʈ kamjuuniʈi kamjuuniʈi cenʈaɾ 675 676 677 678 679 680 681 682 683 684 685 686 687 688 689 690 691 692 693 694 695 696 697 698 699 700 ˈkɒm.jʊ.nɪst ˈkɒm.jʊ.nɪ.zəm kəˈmɜː.ʃəl kʌm ɒn kəˈmɑːn.dər ˈkɒm.ən.dænt kəˈmɑːnd kəˈmɑːnd kəˈmɪt.i kəˈmɪʃ.ən kəˈmɪʃ.ən.ər ˈkɒm.ən.tri ˈkɜː.tʃɪf ˈkʌr.ənt kəˈrʌpt kəˈrʌpt kəˈrʌpt kəˈrʌp.ʃən ˈkʌr.ənt .si ˌkɒr.ɪˈspɒn.dənt ˌkɒr.ɪˈspɒn.dənt s kəˈrekt kəˈrekt kəˈrekt kəˈrek.ʃən ˈkʌl.vət communist communism commercial come on commander commandant command to command committee commission commissioner commentary kerchief current corrupt to be corrupt to corrupt corruption currency correspondent correspondence correct to be correct to correct correction culvert 134 kamjuunisʈ kamjuunisam kamaɾʂjal kamaaɳ kamaaɳʈaɾ kamaaɳʈanʈ kamaanʈ kamaanʈ paɳɳu kamiʈʈi kamiʂan kamiʂanaɾ kameɳʈaɾi kaɾciip kaɾaɳʈ kaɾapʈ kaɾapʈ aaka iɾu kaɾapʈ paɳɳu kaɾapʂan kaɾansi kaɾaspaanʈanʈ kaɾaspaanʈans kaɾekʈ kaɾekʈ aaka iɾu kaɾekʈ paɳɳu kaɾekʂan kalʋaɾʈ 701 702 703 704 705 706 707 708 709 710 711 712 713 714 715 716 717 718 719 720 721 722 723 724 725 726 ˈkʌl.ər ˈkʌl.ər kəˈlekt kəˈlek.tər kəˈlek.ʃən ˈkʌv.ər ˈkʌv.ər ˈkʌv.ər ˈgʌv.ən.mənt ˈgʌv.ən.ər ˈkʌv.ər.ɪŋ ˈlet.ər ˈkaʊnt .səl ˈkaʊnt .səl.ər kaʊnt ˈkaʊn.tər kaʊnt.ɪŋ kənˈgræt.jʊ.leɪt kənˌgræt.jʊˈleɪ.ʃənz kənˈgræt.jʊ.leɪt kənˌgræt.jʊˈleɪ.ʃənz kənˈseʃ.ən kənˈseʃ.ən ˈkʌn.tri kənˈtrəʊl kənˈtrəʊl kənˈtrəʊ.lər colour to colour to collect collector (a high govt. post) collection cover to cover to put a cover to government governor covering letter council councilor to count counter counting to congratulate congratulations to congratulate congratulations concession to give a concession country control to control controller 135 kalaɾ kalaɾ paɳɳu kalekʈ paɳɳu kalekʈʈaɾ kalekʂan kaʋaɾ kaʋaɾ paɳɳu kaʋaɾ pooʈu kaʋaɾmenʈ kaʋaɾnaɾ kaʋaɾiŋ leʈʈaɾ kaʋuncil kaʋuncilaɾ kaʋunʈ paɳɳu kaʋunʈaɾ kaʋunʈiŋ kankɾaadʒuleeʈ paɳɳu kankɾaadʒuleeʂans kankiɾaadʒuleeʈ paɳɳu kankiɾaadʒuleeʈʂans kanceʂan kanceʂan koʈu kanʈɾi kanʈɾool kanʈɾool paɳɳu kanʈɾoolaɾ 727 728 729 730 731 732 733 734 735 736 737 738 739 740 741 742 743 744 745 746 747 748 749 750 751 752 ˈkæn.tɒn.mənt kənˈfjuː.ʒən kənˈfjuːz kənˈfɜːm ˌkɒn.fəˈmeɪ.ʃən kənˈfɔːm kənˈsjuːm kənˈsjuː.mər kəˈnekt kəˈnek.ʃən kəˈnek.ʃən kəˈnekt kəˈnek.ʃən kəˈnek.ʃən ˈkʌs.təm ˈkʌs.təmz ˈkʌs.təmz ˈɒf.ɪs ˈkʌs.təmz kənˈtrəʊl ˈkʌs.tə.mər ˈkʌs.tə.mər ˈsɜː.vɪs ˈkɒk.teɪl ˈpɑː.ti ˈgɒg.l z gæŋ ˈgæŋ.weɪ gæŋ men ˈkæʒ.ju.ə.li cantonment (military quarters) confusion to confuse to confirm confirmation to conform to consume consumer to connect connection to give a connection to connect connection to give a connection custom customs customs office customs control customer customer service cocktail party goggles gang gangway (shipping) gangmen (railways) casually 136 kanʈoonmenʈ kanfjuuʂan kanfjuus paɳɳu kanfaɾm paɳɳu kanfaɾmeeʂan kanfaaɾm paɳɳu kansjuum paɳɳu kansjuumaɾ kanakʈ paɳɳu kanakʂan kanakʂan koʈu kanekʈ paɳɳu kanekʂan kaneekʂan koʈu kasʈam kasʈams kasʈams aapiis kasʈams kaɳʈɾool kasʈamaɾ kasʈamaɾ caɾʋiis kaakʈejil paaɾʈʈi kaakiɭs kaaŋk kaaŋʋee kaaŋmen kaacuʋal aaka 753 754 755 756 757 758 759 760 761 762 763 764 765 766 767 768 769 770 771 772 773 774 775 776 777 778 ˈkæʒ.ju.əl liːv kætʃ kætʃ ˈkæt.ə.pʌlt ˈkæt.əl.ɒg ˈkɒt.ən ˈgædʒ.ɪt ˈkæt.ə.rækt ˈgɔː.di kəˈdet ˈkæn.dl ˈkæθ.əl.ɪk ˈkæp.tɪn ˈkɒ.fi ˈkɒ.pi ˈkɒp.i ˈkɒp.i ˈkɒf.i ˈkæp.sjuːl ˈgæb.ə.diːn ˈkæb.ə.reɪ ˈkɒp.i.raɪt ˈkæb.ɪn ˈkæb.ɪ.nət ˈkæb.ɪdʒ ˈkɒf.i casual leave catch (cricket) to catch catapult catalogue cotton gadget cataract (medical) to be gaudy cadet candle catholic captain coffee copy to copy to copy to make coffee capsule gabardine (a kind of cloth) cabaret copyright cabin cabinet cabbage coffee 137 kaacuʋal liiʋ kaaʈc kaaʈc paɳɳu kaaʈʈapulʈ kaaʈʈalaak kaaʈʈan kaaʈdʒaʈ kaaʈaɾeekʈ kaaʈi aaka iɾu kaaʈeʈ kaaɳʈil kaattalik kaapʈan kaappi kaappi kaappi aʈi kaappi paɳɳu kaappi pooʈu kaapsjuul kaapaɾʈiin kaapaɾee kaapiɾaiʈ kaapin kaapineʈ kaapeedʒ kaafi 779 780 781 782 783 784 785 786 787 788 789 790 791 792 793 794 795 796 797 798 799 800 801 802 803 804 camp complimentary competition compass comrade commerce common common sense commonwealth comic camera comedian comedy comedian camera coin coil (technical) coil (technical) coin car cork cartoon cards (playing cards) garden guardian card kæmp ˌkɒm.plɪˈmen.tər.i ˌkɒm.pəˈtɪʃ.ən ˈkʌm.pəs ˈkɒm.reɪd ˈkɒm.ɜːs ˈkɒm.ən ˈkɒm.ən sent s ˈkɒm.ən.welθ ˈkɒm.ɪk ˈkæm.rə kəˈmiː.di.ən ˈkɒm.ə.di kə.ˈmiː.di.ən ˈkæm.rə kɔɪn kɔɪl kɔɪl kɔɪn kɑːr kɔːk kɑːˈtuːn kɑːdz ˈgɑː.dən ˈgɑː.di.ən kɑːd 138 kaamp kaampɭimenʈaɾi kaampaʈiʂan kaampas kaamɾeeʈ kaamaɾs kaaman kaamancens kaamanʋelt kaamik kaamiɾaa kaamiiʈijan kaameʈi kaameʈijan kaameeɾaa kaajn kaajl kaajil kaajin kaaɾ kaaɾk kaaɾʈʈuun kaaɾʈs kaaɾʈan kaaɾʈijan kaaɾʈu 805 806 807 808 809 810 811 812 813 814 815 816 817 818 819 820 821 822 823 824 825 826 827 828 829 830 kɑːd ˈkɔː.də.rɔɪ kɑːˈtuːn ˌkɔː.pərˈeɪ.ʃən ˈkɑː.bən ˈpeɪ.pər ˌkɑː.bəˈret.ər ˈkɑː.pɪt ˌkɔː.pərˈeɪ.ʃən ˈgɑː.mənt ˈgɑː.lənd ˈgɑː.lənd ˈkɔː.nər ˈkær.ət ˈkɒr.ɪ.dɔːr ˈkær.i.ər ˈgær.ɪ.sən ˈkær.ɪk.tər ˌgær.ənˈtiː ˌgær.ənˈtiː ˌgær.ənˈtiː ˈkær.ɪdʒ kɔːl ˈkæl.si.əm gɒlf kɔːl fɔːr kɔːl fɔːr to play a card;to drop a postcard corduroy (a type of cloth) cartoon corporation carbon paper carburetor (automobile) carpet corporation garment garland to garland corner carrot corridor carrier garrison (military) character guarantee to give a guarantee to guarantee carriage call (as a telephone call) calcium golf call for (used in govt adm.) to call for 139 kaaɾʈu pooʈu kaaɾʈuɾaaj kaaɾʈuun kaaɾpaɾeeʂan kaaɾpanpeeppaɾ kaaɾpuɾeeʈʈaɾ kaaɾpeʈ kaaɾpoɾeeʂan kaaɾmeɳʈ kaaɾlaɳʈ kaaɾlaɳʈ paɳɳu kaaɾnaɾ kaaɾaʈ kaaɾiʈooɾ kaaɾijaɾ kaaɾisan kaaɾekʈaɾ kaaɾenʈi kaaɾenʈi koʈu kaaɾenʈi paɳɳu kaaɾeedʒ kaal kaalcijam kaalp kaalfaaɾ kaalfaaɾ paɳɳu 831 832 833 834 835 836 837 838 839 840 841 842 843 844 845 846 847 848 849 850 851 852 853 854 855 856 ˈgæl.və.naɪz kɔːl ʃiːt ˈkæl.ɪn.dər ˈkɒ.lər ˈkɒl.ər.ə ˈgæl.ər.i ˈgæl.ən ˈkɒl.ə.ni ˈkæl.ɪ.kəʊ ˈkɔː.lɪŋ bel ˈkɒl.ɪˌflaʊ.ər ˈkɒl.ɪdʒ ˈkænt .sər kənˈdʌk.tər ˈkæn.dɪ.dət kænˈtiːn ˈkɒn.fər.ənt s ˈkɒn.fɪ.skeɪt ˈkɒn.fɪ.skeɪt ˈkæn.və.sər ˈkæn.vəs ˈkæn.vəs ˈkɒn.vənt ˈkæn.vəs ʃuːz ˈkæn.və.sɪŋ ˌkɒn.vəˈkeɪ.ʃən galvanise (technical) call sheet (cinema) calender collar cholera gallery gallon colony calico (type of cloth) calling bell cauliflower college cancer conductor candidate canteen conference confiscate to confiscate canvassors canvas (thick water-proof material) to canvass convent canvas shoes canvassing convocation 140 kaalʋanais kaalʂiiʈ kaalaɳʈaɾ kaalaɾ kaalaɾaa kaalaɾi kaalan kaalani kaalikkoo kaaliŋpel kaalifɭaʋaɾ kaaledʒ kaancaɾ kaanʈakʈ kaanʈiʈeeʈ kaanʈiin kaanfaɾans kaanfiskeeʈ kaanfiskeeʈ paɳɳu kaanʋaacaɾs kaanʋaas kaanʋaas paɳɳu kaanʋenʈ kaanʋes ʂu kaanʋesiŋ kaanʋookeeʂan 857 858 859 860 861 862 863 864 865 866 867 868 869 870 871 872 873 874 875 876 877 878 879 880 881 882 ˈkʌnt .stə.bl ˈkænt .sər kənˈsɜː.və.tɪv kənˈsɜː.və.tɪv ˈpɑː.ti ˈkænt .səl kæʃ kæʃ ˈkɔː.ʃən kæʃˈɪər kɔːz gæs gæs ˈsɪl.ɪn.dər kɑːst ˈkɒst .li ˈkɔː.stɪk ˈgɒs.pəl ˌkɒz.məˈpɒl.ɪ.tən gæs laɪt gæs stəʊv ˈkæʒ.ju.əl ˈkæʒ.ju.əl liːv ˈkæʒ.ju.ə.li kɪk kɪŋ ˈkɪtʃ.ən gɪˈtɑːr constable cancer conservative conservative party to cancel cash to encash (as a cheque) caution cashier cause gas gas cylinder caste costly caustic soda gospel cosmopolitan gas light gas stove casual casual leave (used in adm.) casually kick king kitchen guitar 141 kaansʈapiɭ kaansaɾ kaansaɾaʋeeʈiʋ kaansaɾʋeeʈiʋ paaɾʈi kaansel paɳɳu kaaʂ kaaʂ paɳɳu kaaʂan kaaʂijaɾ kaas kaas kaas cilinʈaɾ kaasʈ kaasʈli kaasʈik cooʈaa kaaspal kaasmoopaaliʈan kaaslaiʈ kaassʈaʋ kaasuʋal kaasuʋalliiʋ kaasuʋalaaka kik kiŋ kiccan kiʈʈaaɾ 883 884 885 886 887 888 889 890 891 892 893 894 895 896 897 898 899 900 901 902 903 904 905 906 907 908 gɪˈtɑːr ˈkɪd.næp ˈkɪd.næp ˈkɪd.næp ˈkɪd.næp ˈkɪd.ni gɪər graʊnd grænd grɑːnt grænd grɑːnt krɒp græm ˈgræm.ə.fəʊn ˈgræm.ə.fəʊn krɒs krɒs krɒs ˈkrɪk.ɪt ˈkrɪk.ɪt ˈkrɪm.ɪ.nəl krep gɪlt gɪld əv/ɒv ˈsɜː.vɪs ˈgɪl.ti to play the guitar kidnap to kidnap kidnap to kidnap kidney gear (automobile) ground (usually playground) grand grant to be grand to grant crop (western style gent's hair cut) gram gramaphone to play the gramaphone cross to cross (as the street) to mark a cross cricket to play cricket criminal crepe ( a type of cloth or paper) gilt (a gold coloured covering) guild of service (a service org.) to be guilty 142 kiʈʈaaɾ pooʈu kiʈnaap kiʈnaap paɳɳu kiʈneep kiʈneep paɳɳu kiʈni kijaɾ kiɾaʋuɳʈu kiɾaaɳʈ kiɾaaɳʈ kiɾaaɳʈ aaka iɾu kiɾaaɳʈ paɳɳu kiɾaap kiɾaam kiɾaamapoon kiɾaamapoon pooʈu kiɾaas kiɾaas paɳɳu kiɾaas pooʈu kiɾikkeʈ kiɾikkeʈ aaʈu kiɾiminal kiɾeep kilʈ kilʈ aaf caɾʋis kilʈʈi aaka iɾu 909 910 911 912 913 914 915 916 917 918 919 920 921 922 923 924 925 926 927 928 929 930 931 932 933 934 ˈkiː.ləʊ ˈkɪl.ə.græm ˈkɪl.əˌmiː.tər klʌtʃ klɑːs glɑːs ˈklɑːs.meɪt ˈglɪs.ər.iːn ˈklɪə.li klɪər klɪər ˈklɪə.rənt s ˈklɪə.rənt s seɪl ˈkrɪs.tʃən ˈkrɪs.məs kɪs kɪs kiː kiː kʊk ˈkʊk.ər kʊk gʊd gʊd ˈiːv.nɪŋ gʊd njuːz gʊd naɪt kilo (kilogram) kilogram kilometer clutch (automobile) class glass classmate glycerine clearly to be clear to clear clearance clearance sale christian christmas kiss to kiss key to wind (turn the key) cook cooker to cook good good evening good news good night 143 kiloo kilookɾaam kiloomiiʈʈaɾ kiɭac kiɭaas kiɭaas kiɭaasmeeʈ kiɭicaɾin kiɭijaɾ aaka kiɭijaɾ aaka iɾu kiɭijaɾ paɳɳu kiɭijaɾans kiɭijaɾans ceel kirisʈian kirismas kis kis paɳɳu kii kii koʈu kuk kukaɾ kuk paɳɳu kuʈ kuʈiiʋiniŋ kuʈnijus kuʈnaiʈ 935 936 937 938 939 940 941 942 943 944 945 946 947 948 949 950 951 952 953 954 955 956 957 958 959 960 ˈgʊd.baɪ gʊd ˈmɔː.nɪŋ gʊdˈwɪl gʊdz kruːd ɔɪl gruːp grəʊs ˈkwɔː.tərz ˈkwɒl.ɪ.ti ˌkwɒl.ɪ.fɪˈkeɪ.ʃən ˈkwɒl.ɪ.faɪd ˈkwɒl.ɪ.faɪ ˈkwin-təl ˈkwɪn.iːn ˈkwɪn.iːn ˈklɒr.ə.fɔːm ˈklɒr.ə.fɔːm ˈkʊʃ.ən gʊdz gʊdz treɪn ˈkuː.pɒn kuːl kuːl kuːl drɪŋk ˈkuː.lər ˈkuː.lɪŋ glɑːs good bye good morning good will goods crude oil group gross quarters quality qualification qualified to qualify quintal quinine quinine chloroform chloroform cushion goods goods train coupon cool to be cool cool drink cooler (as water cooler) cooling glass (sun glasses) 144 kuʈpai kuʈmaaɾniŋ kuʈʋil kuʈs kuɾuuʈ aajil kuɾuup kuɾoos kuʋaaɾʈʈaɾs kuʋaaliʈi kuʋaalifikkeeʂan kuʋaalifaiʈ kuʋaalifai paɳɳu kuʋinʈaal kuʋinnin kuʋainin kuɭooɾapaam kuɭooɾafaam kuʂan kuuʈs kuuʈs ʈɾejin kuuppan kuul kuul aaka iɾu kuulʈɾiŋk kuulaɾ kuuliŋkɭaas 961 962 963 964 965 966 967 968 969 970 971 972 973 974 975 976 977 978 979 980 981 982 983 984 985 986 guːs get aʊt ˈket.l get ˈred.i ˈkem.ɪ.kəl ˈkem.ɪst ˈker.ə.siːn gəˈzet ges gest ruːm gest haʊs ges keɪ dʒiː keɪk keɪk ˈʌv.ən keɪk ˈkæʒ.ju.əl liːv geɪt ˈkeɪ.bl geɪm geɪn keər keər ˈkeə.fəl ˈkeə.fəl ˈkeə.ləs goose (in swear word like 'fool') get out kettle get ready chemical chemist kerosene gazette (an official govt publication) guess guest room guest house to guess K.G. (kindergarten) cake cake oven to bake a cake casual leave (adminstration) gate cable game gain (profit) to take care to care careful to be careful careless 145 kuus keʈ aʋuʈ keʈʈil keʈ ɾeʈi kemikal kemisʈ keɾoocin kedʒaʈ kes kesʈ ɾuum kesʈ haʋus kes paɳɳu kee dʒi keek keek aʋan keek cuʈu keecuʋal liiʋ keeʈ keepiɭ keem keejn keeɾ eʈu keeɾ paɳɳu keeɾpul keeɾpul aaka iɾu keeɾles 987 988 989 990 991 992 993 994 995 996 997 998 999 1000 1001 1002 1003 1004 1005 1006 1007 1008 1009 1010 1011 1012 ˈkær.əm ˈkæn.və.sərz ˈkæn.vəs ˈkæn.vəs geɪdʒ geɪdʒ keɪs keɪs ˈkæʒ.ju.əl liːv gaɪd gaɪd ˈkaɪnd.li kaɪnd kəʊ ˈkeɪn ˈkəʊ.kəʊ kwəʊ ˈteɪ.ʃən kwəʊ ˈteɪ.ʃən ˈgəʊdaʊn kwaɪət kwaɪət kwaɪət kwaɪət kwaɪər gəˈrɪl.ə kəˈlæt.ər.əl kəˈlæb.ə.reɪt carroms (an indoor game) canvassers canvas (thick water-proof material) to canvass gauge to gauge case (legal or medical) to file a case (legal) casual leave (adminstration) guide to guide kindly to be kind cocaine cocoa quotation to give/submit a quotation godown quiet quietly to be quiet to quieten choir gorilla collateral collaborate 146 keeɾam keenʋaacaɾs keenʋaas keenʋaas paɳɳu keedʒ keedʒ paɳɳu kees kees pooʈu keesuʋal liiʋ kaiʈu kaiʈu paɳɳu kainʈ aaka kainʈ aaka iɾu kokkeejn kokkoo koʈʈeeʂan koʈʈeeʂan koʈu koʈeɭan kojaʈ kojaʈ aaka kojaʈ aaka iɾu kojaʈ paɳɳu kojaɾ koɾilla kolaaʈʈaɾal kolaapoɾeeʈ 1013 1014 1015 1016 1017 1018 1019 1020 1021 1022 1023 1024 1025 1026 1027 1028 1029 1030 1031 1032 1033 1034 1035 1036 1037 1038 kəˈlæb.ə.reɪt kəˈlæb.ə.reɪ.tər kəˈlɪʒ.ən kəˈlaɪd kənˈseʃ.ən ˈkwes.tʃən ˈkwes.tʃən ˈkwes.tʃən ˈkwes.tʃən ˈpeɪ.pər ˌkəʊ.ed.jʊˈkeɪ.ʃən ˈkwəʊ.tə kəʊt kwəʊt ˈgəʊdaʊn ˈgəʊdaʊn kɔːt kɔːs kɔːs kɔːs gəʊl kəʊld gəʊld kəʊld gəʊld ˈmed.əl gəʊl kəʊˈɑː.lə to collaborate collaborator collision to collide concession question to ask a question to question question paper co-education quotation coat to quote godown godown court (legal, or as in tennis) course to take a course to do a course goal cold gold to catch a cold gold medal to score a goal koala 147 kolaapoɾeeʈ paɳɳu kolaapoɾeeʈaɾ koliʂan kolaiʈ paɳɳu konceʂan kosʈijan kosʈijan keeɭ kosʈijan paɳɳu kosʈijanpeeppaɾ koo edʒukeeʂan kooʈʈaa kooʈʈu kooʈ paɳɳu kooʈaʋun kooʈeɭan kooɾʈ kooɾs kooɾs eʈu kooɾs paɳɳu kool koolʈ koolʈ koolʈ piʈi koolʈmeʈal kool pooʈu koolaa 1039 1040 1041 1042 1043 1044 1045 1046 1047 1048 1049 1050 1051 1052 1053 1054 1055 1056 1057 1058 1059 1060 1061 1062 1063 1064 kəʊˈɒp.ər.ə.tɪv səˈsaɪ.ə.ti kəʊn-ˌaɪsˈkriːm ˈkaʊnt .səl.ər tʃeər slɪp ˈsʌk.ʃən tjuːb səkˈses səkˈses.fəl səkˈses.fəl ˈsʌd.ən sʌbsʌb-ɪnˈspek.tər sʌb-kənˈtræk.tər səˈpiː.nə səˈpɔːt səˈpɔːt səˈpəʊz ˌsʌb.məˈriːn ˈsʌb.weɪ səˈplaɪ səˈplaɪ səˈplaɪ.ər ˈsʌb.dʒekt ˈsʌf.ər ˈsʌm.θɪŋ ˈsʌm.θɪŋ co-operative society cone ice-cream councillor chair slip (of paper) suction tube (technical) success successful to become successful suddenly subsub inspector sub contractor subpoena (legal) support to support suppose submarine subway supply to supply supplier subject to suffer something (a relationship between two people) something (a bribe or a tip) 148 kooʋaapaɾeeʈiʋ sʈooɾ koon aiskɾiim kauncilaɾ cceeɾ clip cakʂanʈjuup caksas caksasful caksasful aaku caʈan aaka cap… capinspekʈaɾ capkaanʈiɾaakʈaɾ cappiinu cappooɾʈ cappooɾʈ paɳɳu cappoos capmeɾin capʋee capɭai capɭai paɳɳu capɭaijaɾ capdʒekʈ cafaɾ paɳɳu camtiŋ camtiŋ 1065 1066 1067 1068 1069 1070 1071 1072 1073 1074 1075 1076 1077 1078 1079 1080 1081 1082 1083 1084 1085 1086 1087 1088 1089 1090 sʌmp ˈsʌm.ər ˈsʌm.ənz ˈsaɪən.tɪst saɪənt s sɜːr ˈsɜː.kəs ˈsɜː.kl ˈsɜː.kl ɪnˈspek.tər ˈsɜː.kjʊ.lər ˈsɜː.kɪt tʃɜːtʃ ˈsɜː.tʃɑːdʒ sɜːtʃ ʃɜːt səˈtɪf.ɪ.kət ˈsɜː.tɪ.faɪ ˈsɜː.tɪ.faɪ ˈsɜː.neɪm səˈpraɪz sɜːv ˈsɜː.vər ˈsɜː.vənt ˈsɜː.vɪs ˈsɜː.vɪs ˈsɜː.vɪs.ɪŋ sump (water tank at ground level) summer summons (legal) scientist science sir circus circle circle inspector circular (written info circulated) circuit (technical) church surcharge to search shirt certificate to certify to certify surname surprise to serve server servant service to service (automobile) servicing (automobile) 149 camp cammaɾ cammans cajanʈisʈ cajans caɾ caɾkkas caɾkkiɭ caɾkkil inspekʈaɾ caɾkkulaɾ caɾkjuuʈ caɾc caɾccaaɾdʒ caɾc paɳɳu caɾʈ caɾʈipikeeʈ caɾʈipai paɳɳu caɾʈifai paɳɳu caɾneem caɾpɾais caɾʋ paɳɳu caɾʋaɾ caɾʋanʈ caɾʋiis caɾʋiis paɳɳu caɾʋiisiŋ 1091 1092 1093 1094 1095 1096 1097 1098 1099 1100 1101 1102 1103 1104 1105 1106 1107 1108 1109 1110 1111 1112 1113 1114 1115 1116 ˈsɜː.veɪ ˈsɜː.veɪ ˈsɜː.dʒən sərˈen.dər səˈluːt səˈluːn səˈluːn ˈsɒv.ər.ɪn saʊnd sʌn səˈdʒest səˈdʒes.tʃən səˈspend səˈspend səˈspen.ʃən ˈɔː.dər səˈspent s sɔː ˈsɒk.ɪt tʃɔːk tʃɔːk piːs ˈtʃɒk.lət sɒks ˈsæŋk.ʃən ˈsæŋk.ʃən ˈsæt.ɪn tʃɒps to take a survey of to survey surgeon to surrender to salute saloon (barber's shop) saloon (a specially built railway carriage) sovereign (gold of particular weight/composition) sound son to suggest suggestion to become suspended to suspend suspension order (government administration) suspense saw socket (technical) chalk a piece of chalk chocolate socks to become/get sanctioned to sanction satin (a type of cloth) chops ( a meat dish) 150 caɾʋee eʈu caɾʋee paɳɳu caɾdʒan caɾaɳʈaɾ paɳɳu caljuuʈ paɳɳu caluun caluun caʋaɾan caʋuɳʈ can cadʒasʈ paɳɳu cadʒeqan caspenʈu aaku caspenʈu paɳɳu caspenqanaaɾʈaɾ caspens caa caakkaʈ caak caak piis caakleʈ caaks caaŋqan aaku caaŋqan paɳɳu caaʈʈin caaps 1117 1118 1119 1120 1121 1122 1123 1124 1125 1126 1127 1128 1129 1130 1131 1132 1133 1134 1135 1136 1137 1138 1139 1140 1141 1142 sɒft ˈtʃæm.pi.ən ˈsɑːm.pl ˈsɑːm.pl ˈsɑːm.pl tʃɔɪs sɜːr tʃɑːt sɔːt aʊt ˈsɔː.tər sɔː.tɪŋ ˈɒf.ɪs tʃɑːdʒ tʃɑːdʒ ˈsɑː.dʒənt ˈsɑː.dʒənt ˈsɑː.ri ˈsɒr.i sɒlt sɒlv sɒlv ˈsæl.əd ˈsɒv.ər.ɪn ˈsɒv.ər.ɪn gəʊld ˈsɒv.ər.ɪn steɪt ˈsæn.dəl wʊd ˈsæn.dəlz soft champion sample to give a sample to sample choice sir chart to sort out sorter (a job in post office/railways) sorting office charge to charge sergeant sergeant sari sorry salt to become solved to solve salad sovereign sovereign gold sovereign state sandal wood sandals 151 caafʈ caampijan caampiɭ caampiɭ koʈu caampiɭ paɳɳu caajs caaɾ caaɾʈ caaɾʈauʈ paɳɳu caaɾʈʈaɾ caaɾʈʈiŋ aapiis caaɾdʒ caaɾdʒ paɳɳu caaɾdʒaɳʈ caaɾdʒeɳʈ caaɾi caaɾi caalʈ caalʋ aaku caalʋ paɳɳu caalaʈ caaʋaɾan caaʋaɾan koolʈ caaʋaɾan sʈeeʈ caanʈalʋuʈ caanʈals 1143 1144 1145 1146 1147 1148 1149 1150 1151 1152 1153 1154 1155 1156 1157 1158 1159 1160 1161 1162 1163 1164 1165 1166 1167 1168 tʃɑːnt s tʃɑːnt s tʃɑːnt s ˈtʃɑːnt .səl.ər ˌsæn.əˈtɔː.ri.əm ˌsæn.əˈtɔː.ri.əm ˈsæn.ɪ.tri ˌsæn.ɪˈteɪ.ʃən ˈsɔː.sər sɪk ˈtʃɪk.ər.i ˈsɪk.li ˈsɪg.nəl ˈsɪg.nəl ˈsɪg.nɪ.tʃər ˈsɪg.nɪ.tʃər ˌsɪg.ərˈet sɪŋk ˈsɪŋ.gl ˌsɪt.juˈeɪ.ʃən tʃɪt ˈsɪt.i ˈsɪt.ɪŋ ruːm tʃɪt fʌnd tʃɪps ˈsɪmp .təm chance to get a chance to give a chance chancellor (university) sanatorium sanatorium sanitary sanitation saucer sick chicory sickly signal to give a signal signature to put one's signature cigarette sink (as a kitchen sink) single situation chit (as a chit fund) city sitting room chit fund chips symptom 152 caans caans kiʈai caans koʈu caansalaɾ caanaʈʈooɾijam caaniʈʈooɾijam caaniʈaɾi caaniʈeeqan caasaɾ cik cikkaɾi cikli siknal ciknal koʈu cikneeccaɾ cikneeccaɾ pooʈu cikaɾeʈ ciŋk ciŋkiɭ ciccuʋeeqan ciʈ ciʈʈi ciʈʈiŋɾuum ciʈpaɳʈu cips cimʈam 1169 1170 1171 1172 1173 1174 1175 1176 1177 1178 1179 1180 1181 1182 1183 1184 1185 1186 1187 1188 1189 1190 1191 1192 1193 1194 sɪˈment ˈsɪm.bəl ˈsɪm.pl ˈtʃɪm.ni sɪˈment tʃɪl sɪlk ˈsɪl.i ˈsɪl.vər slɪp ˈsɪl.ɪn.dər ˈsɪv.əl ˈsɪv.əl ˈsɜː.vənt ˈsɪn.ə.mə ˈsɪs.təm ˈsɪs.tər ˈsiː.krət ˈsiː.zən ˈsiː.zən ˈtɪk.ɪt ˈsiː.sɔː siːt tʃiːp tʃiːp tʃiːf ˈsɪə.ri.əl ˈsɪə.ri.əs cement symbol simple chimney cement to be chill silk to be silly silver slip (of paper) cylinder civil civil servant cinema system sister secret season season ticket see saw seat cheap to be cheap chief serial serious 153 cimʈi cimpal cimpiɭ cimni cimeɳʈ cil aaka iɾu cilk cilli aaka iɾu cilʋaɾ cilip cilinʈaɾ ciʋil ciʋilcaɾʋenʈ cinimaa cisʈam cisʈaɾ ciikɾeʈ ciican ciicanʈikkeʈ ciicaa ciiʈ ciip ciip aaka iɾu ciif ciiɾijal ciiɾijas 1195 1196 1197 1198 1199 1200 1201 1202 1203 1204 1205 1206 1207 1208 1209 1210 1211 1212 1213 1214 1215 1216 1217 1218 1219 1220 ˈsɪə.ri.əs ˈsɪə.riːz siːl siːl siːl ˈsiː.lɪŋ wæks ˈsiː.lɪŋ fæn siːn ˈsiː.ni.ər tʃiːz siːs siːz suːˈpɪə.ri.ər suːˈpriːm kɔːt ˌsuː.pə.rɪmˈpəʊz suːˈpɜːb ˌsuː.pəˈfɪʃ.əl ˌsuː.pəˈsiːd ˌsuː.pəˈsiːd sj uːt ˈsj uːt.keɪs sj uːt suːp ˈsuː.pəˌmɑː.kɪt ˈsuː.pə.vaɪ.zər ˈsuː.pə.vaɪz to be serious series seal to seal to put the seal sealing wax ceiling fan scene (in a play or film) senior cheese to cease (as an engine) to seize (as to be confiscated by the customs etc.) superior supreme court superimpose (photography) superb superficial superceed to superceed suit suitcase to suit soup supermarket supervisor to supervise 154 ciiɾijas aaka iɾu ciiɾiis ciil ciil paɳɳu ciil ʋai ciiliŋʋaaks ciiliŋfeen ciin ciinijaɾ ciis ciis aaku ciis paɳɳu cuppiiɾijaɾ cupɾiimkooɾʈ cupaɾimpoos cupaɾp cuɾficijal cupaɾsiiʈ cupaɾsiiʈ paɳɳu cuuʈ cuuʈkees cuuʈ paɳɳu cuup cuuppaɾmaaɾkeʈ cuuppaɾʋaicaɾ cuuppaɾʋais paɳɳu 1221 1222 1223 1224 1225 1226 1227 1228 1229 1230 1231 1232 1233 1234 1235 1236 1237 1238 1239 1240 1241 1242 1243 1244 1245 1246 ˌsuː.pə.rɪnˈten.dənt ˈsuː.ɪdʒ ˈsuː.ɪdʒ tʃuːz ˈsuː.ɪ.saɪd ˈsuː.ɪ.saɪd tʃek tʃek ʌp tʃek ʌp ˈtʃek.ər tʃek.ɪŋ ɪnˈspek.tər tʃek tʃek ˈtʃek.pəʊst sɪˈkjʊə.rɪ.ti ˈsek.rə.tri ˈsek.ʃən seks ˈsek.ən.dri greɪd ˈsek.ənd ˈlæŋ.gwɪdʒ ˈsek.ənd hænd set setˈiː ˈset.l ˈset.l ˈset.l .mənt superintendent sewage sewage to choose suicide to commit suicide cheque check up (medical and technical) to check up checker (one who checks tickets in bus) checking inspector to issue a cheque to check checkpost security secretary section sex secondary grade second language second hand set settee (sofa set) settle to settle settlement 155 cuuppiɾaɳʈu cuujeedʒ cuuʋeedʒ cuus paɳɳu cuusaiʈ cuusaiʈ paɳɳu cek cek ap cek ap paɳɳu cekkaɾ cekkiŋ inspekʈaɾ cek koʈu cek paɳɳu cekpoosʈ cekjuuɾiʈi cekɾaʈaɾi cekqan ceks cekanʈaɾikiɾeeʈ cekanlaaŋʋeedʒ cekanhaaɳʈ ceʈ ceʈʈi ceʈʈil ceʈʈil paɳɳu ceʈʈilmenʈ 1247 1248 1249 1250 1251 1252 1253 1254 1255 1256 1257 1258 1259 1260 1261 1262 1263 1264 1265 1266 1267 1268 1269 1270 1271 1272 ˈset.l .mənt set ˈsen.tər sepˈtem.bər tʃeɪn tʃeɪn ˈser.ɪ.mə.ni sel sɪˈlekt sɪˈlekt sɪˈlek.ʃən ˈsel.jʊ.lɔɪd sent sent sent ˈsen.trəl ˈsen.tri senˈtiː.nər.i ˈsent .sər ˈsent .sər ˈseʃ.ən tʃes tʃes ˈsæk.ər.iːn ˈsæk.sə.fəʊn ˈsæŋk.ʃən to make a settlement to set centre September chain to chain (as a dog) ceremony cell (biology/battery) select to select selection celluloid cent scent to put on scent (to wear scent) central sentry centenary censor to censor session (legal) chess to play chess saccharine saxophone sanction 156 ceʈʈilmenʈ cej ceʈ paɳɳu ceɳʈʈaɾ cepʈampaɾ cejin cejin paɳɳu ceɾimani cel celakʈ celakʈ paɳɳu celakqan celuulaajiʈ cenʈ cenʈ cenʈ pooʈu cenʈɾal cenʈɾi cenʈinaɾi censaaɾ censaaɾ paɳɳu ceqan ces ces aaʈu ceekkaɾiin ceeksafoon ceeŋqan 1273 1274 1275 1276 1277 1278 1279 1280 1281 1282 1283 1284 1285 1286 1287 1288 1289 1290 1291 1292 1293 1294 1295 1296 1297 1298 ˈsæd.l ˈtʃæp.əl seɪf seɪf ˈtʃeɪm.bər ˈtʃæm.pi.ən ˈsɑːm.pl seɪm hɪər tʃeɪn tʃeɪndʒ tʃeər ˈtʃeə.mən seɪl seɪl ˈseɪlz.gɜːl ˈseɪlz.mən seɪv seɪv ˈseɪ.vər.i ˈseɪ.vɪŋz bæŋk tʃeɪs saɪˈkɒl.ə.dʒi ˈsaɪ.kl ˈsaɪ.kl ˈsaɪ.kl ˈsaɪ.kləʊn saddle chapel (a small church) safe (for keeping valuables) to be safe chamber (legal) champion sample same here chain change chair chairman sale to make a sale salesgirl salesman save to save savory savings bank to chase psychology cycle to ride a cycle to cycle cyclone 157 ceeʈil ceeppal ceef ceef aaka iɾu ceempaɾ ceempijan ceempiɭ ceemhijaɾ ceejn ceejnɲ ceeɾ ceeɾman ceel ceel paɳɳu ceelskaɾl ceeksman ceeʋ ceeʋ paɳɳu ceeʋaɾi ceeʋiŋspaaŋ cees paɳɳu caikkaaldʒi caikkiɭ caikkiɭ ooʈʈu caikkiɭ paɳɳu caikloon 1299 1300 1301 1302 1303 1304 1305 1306 1307 1308 1309 1310 1311 1312 1313 1314 1315 1316 1317 1318 1319 1320 1321 1322 1323 1324 saɪt saɪt ˈsaɪd.bɜːnz ˈsaɪd-ˈbɪz.nɪs ˈsaɪd-ˈbɪz.nɪs ˈsaɪ.fər ˈsaɪ.fən ˈsaɪ.fən ˈsaɪ.lənt ˈsaɪ.lənt s saɪn ˈsaɪən.tɪst saɪn ˈsaɪn.bɔːd saɪənt s saɪənt s-ˈfɪk.ʃən səˈluː.ʃən tʃəʊk tʃəʊk səʊk ˈsəʊ.də ˈsəʊ.də ˈbɒt.l səʊp səʊp səʊp ˈsəʊ.fə sight to look at girls (sight) sideburns sidebusiness (an additional business or trade) to do a side business cipher (refer to a useles person, situation, or result) syphon to syphon to be silent silence sign scientist to sign sign board (hoarding) science science fiction solution choke to pull the choke (automobile) to soak soda soda bottle soap to flatter (lit: to soap) to flatter (lit: to put soap) sofa 158 caiʈ caiʈ aʈi caiʈpaɾns caiʈpisinas caiʈpisinas paɳɳu caipaɾ caifan caifan paɳɳu cailanʈ aaka iɾu cailans cain cainʈisʈ cain paɳɳu cainpooɾʈu cains cainsfikqan coljuuqan cook cook koʈu cook paɳɳu cooʈaa cooʈaapaaʈʈil coop coop paɳɳu coop pooʈu coofaa 1325 1326 1327 1328 1329 1330 1331 1332 1333 1334 1335 1336 1337 1338 1339 1340 1341 1342 1343 1344 1345 1346 1347 1348 1349 1350 ˈsəʊ.ɪŋ-məˈʃiːn sɔːs səʊl səʊl-ˈsel.ɪŋ-ˈeɪ.dʒənt səʊld səʊld aʊt ˈsəʊl.dər ˈsəʊl.dʒər ˈsəʊ.ʃəl.ɪ.zəm ˈsəʊ.ʃəl.ɪst saʊθ ˈtæl.i ˈdjuː.ti ˈdjuː.ti tjuːb ˈdjuː.plɪ.kət ˈdjuː.plɪ.kət tjuːb-laɪt tjuːn tjuːn tjuːˈɪʃ.ən tjuːˈɪʃ.ən drʌg trʌk trʌk trʌŋk sewing machine source sole (the only) sole selling agent sold sold out to solder (technical) soldier socialism socialist south to tally duty to do (one's) work (for which one is employed) tube duplicate to duplicate tube light (neon lamp) tune to tune (a musical instrument) tuition to give tuition drug (medical) truck to drive a truck trunk (a steel suitcase) 159 coojiŋ meqiin cooɾs cool cool celliŋ edʒanʈ coolʈ coolʈ auʈ coolʈaɾ paɳɳu cooldʒaɾ cooqalicam cooqijalisʈ caut ʈʈaali paɳɳu ʈjuuʈʈi ʈjuuʈʈi paaɾ ʈjuup ʈjuuplikeeʈ ʈjuuplikeeʈ paɳɳu ʈjuup laiʈ ʈjuun ʈjuun paɳɳu ʈjuuʂan ʈjuuʂan koʈu ʈɾak ʈɾak ʈɾak ooʈʈu ʈɾaŋk 1351 1352 1353 1354 1355 1356 1357 1358 1359 1360 1361 1362 1363 1364 1365 1366 1367 1368 1369 1370 1371 1372 1373 1374 1375 1376 trʌŋk-kɔːl ˈtrʌb.l ˈtrʌb.l drʌm drɔː træk ˈtræk.tər ˈtræk.tər drɒp drɒp drɑːft drɑːft drɑːft ˈdrɑːfts.mən drɒp ˈtræf.ɪk drɑːft ˈtræf.ɪk-ˈsɪg.nəlz træm ˈdrɑː.mə ˈdrɑː.mə drɔːr ˈdrɔː.ɪŋ ˈdrɔː.ɪŋ ˈdrɔː.ɪŋ-ruːm ˈtrɒl.i trunk call to give trouble to trouble drum draw track tractor to drive a tractor drop to give a lift (in a vehicle) draft to draft to make out a draft draftsman to drop (someone by vehicle) traffic draft traffic signals tram drama to organise a drama drawer drawing to draw (picture or a sketch) drawing room trolley 160 ʈɾaŋkkaal ʈɾaɳiɭ koʈu ʈɾaɳiɭ paɳɳu ʈɾam ʈɾaa ʈɾaak ʈɾaakʈaɾ ʈɾaakʈaɾ ooʈʈu ʈɾaap ʈɾaap koʈu ʈɾaapʈ ʈɾaapʈ paɳɳu ʈɾaapʈ pooʈu ʈɾaapʈsman ʈɾaap paɳɳu ʈɾaapik ʈɾaafʈ ʈɾaafik ciknal ʈɾaam ʈɾaamaa ʈɾaamaa pooʈu ʈɾaajaɾ ʈɾaajiŋ ʈɾaajiŋ pooʈu ʈɾaajiŋɾuum ʈɾaali 1377 1378 1379 1380 1381 1382 1383 1384 1385 1386 1387 1388 1389 1390 1391 1392 1393 1394 1395 1396 1397 1398 1399 1400 1401 1402 ˈtræv.əl-ˈeɪ.dʒənt ˈtræv.əl ˈtræv.əl.ərz ˈbʌŋ.gəl.əʊ trænˈzɪs.tər ˈtræn.spɔːt(n)/trænˈspɔːt(v) ˈtræns.fɜːr(n)/trænsˈfɜːr(v) trænsˈfɔː.mər trænsˈleɪt trænsˈleɪ.ʃən ˈtrædʒ.ə.di trɪk ʃɒt drɪŋk drɪŋk drɪŋk-ˈpɑː.ti trɪp trɪp trɪm trɪm drɪl drɪl triːt triːt triːt ˈtriːt.mənt ˈtriːt.mənt truːps travel agent to travel travellers bungalow transistor (radio) transport transfer transformer to translate translation tragedy trick shot (photography) drink (alcoholic) to have a drink drink party (drinking party) trip (engaging of taxi or lorry for journey) to do a trip (as above) to be trim to trim (usually the hair) drill (physical exercise) to drill (technical) treat to give a treat to treat (medical) treatment (medical) to take a treatment (medical) troops 161 ʈɾaaʋal eedʒanʈ ʈɾaaʋal paɳɳu ʈɾaaʋalaɾs paŋkaɭaa ʈɾaancisʈaɾ ʈɾaanspooɾʈ ʈɾaansfaɾ ʈɾaansfaaɾmaɾ ʈɾaansleeʈ paɳɳu ʈɾaansleeʂan ʈɾaadʒaʈi ʈɾikʂaaʈ ʈɾiŋ ʈɾiŋkcaappiʈu ʈɾiŋkpaaɾʈʈi ʈɾip ʈɾip aʈi ʈɾim aaka iɾu ʈɾim paɳɳu ʈɾil ʈɾil paɳɳu ʈɾiiʈ ʈɾiiʈ koʈu ʈɾiiʈ paɳɳu ʈɾiiʈmenʈ ʈɾiiʈmenʈ eʈu ʈɾuups 1403 1404 1405 1406 1407 1408 1409 1410 1411 1412 1413 1414 1415 1416 1417 1418 1419 1420 1421 1422 1423 1424 1425 1426 1427 1428 treɪn treɪn dres dres treɪ ˈtreɪd.mɑːk ˈtreɪ.lər ˈtreɪ.nɪŋ ˈtreɪ.nɪdʒ (no such word) treɪs treɪs draɪ ˈtraɪ.sɪ.kl traɪ traɪəl ˈdraɪv.ɪn ˈdraɪ.vər ˈdraɪ.vɪŋ ˈtrəʊ.fi ˈtraʊ.zəz twɪst twɪst twiːd twaɪn tʌk tʌtʃ train to train dress (clothes) to dress tray trade mark trailer training trainage (fare to travel in India) trace to trace to be dry tricycle to try trial (legal) drive in (restaurant where one is served in the car) driver driving trophy trousers twist (type of dance) to twist tweed (type of cloth) twine to tuck to touch 162 ʈɾejn ʈɾejn paɳɳu ʈɾes ʈɾes paɳɳu ʈɾee ʈɾeeʈmaaɾk ʈɾeejlaɾ ʈɾeejniŋ ʈɾeejnedʒ ʈɾees ʈɾees paɳɳu ʈɾai aaka iɾu ʈɾaicaikkiɭ ʈɾai paɳɳu ʈɾaijal ʈɾaiʋ in ʈɾaiʋaɾ ʈɾaiʋiŋ ʈɾoofi ʈɾausaɾs ʈʋisʈ ʈʋisʈ paɳɳu ʈʋiiʈ ʈʋain ʈak paɳɳu ʈac paɳɳu 1429 1430 1431 1432 1433 1434 1435 1436 1437 1438 1439 1440 1441 1442 1443 1444 1445 1446 1447 1448 1449 1450 1451 1452 1453 1454 tʌtʃ ʌp dʌb ˈdʌb.l ˈdʌm.i ˈtʌm.blər ˈdaɪ.ət ˌdaɪəˈbet.ɪk ˌdaɪəˈbiː.tiːz ˈdaɪə.mənd taɪər taɪəd ˈdaɪə.ri ˈdaɪə.ri ˈdaɪ.əl ˈdaɪ.əl ˈdaɪ.ə.lɒg ˈtɜː.ki ˈdɜː.ti ˈtɜː.pən.taɪn ˈtɜː.baɪn tɜːn ˈtɜː.nɪŋ ˈtɜː.nɪp dʌl taʊər taʊəl to touch up (in painting) to dub in (as in films) double dummy tumbler diet diabetic diabetes diamond tyre to be tired diary to maintain a diary dial to dial dialogue (script in a play/or film) turkey to be dirty turpentine turbine (techical) turn turning turnip (vegetable) to be dull tower towel 163 ʈaccap paɳɳu ʈap paɳɳu ʈapiɭ ʈammi ʈamɭaɾ ʈajaʈ ʈajapeʈik ʈajapeʈis ʈajamenʈ ʈajaɾ ʈajaɾʈ aaka iɾu ʈajaɾi ʈajaɾi eɻutu ʈajal ʈajal paɳɳu ʈajalaak ʈaɾkki ʈaɾʈʈi aaka iɾu ʈaɾpanʈain ʈaɾpain ʈaɾn ʈaɾniŋ ʈaɾnip ʈal aaka iɾu ʈaʋaɾ ʈaʋal 1455 1456 1457 1458 1459 1460 1461 1462 1463 1464 1465 1466 1467 1468 1469 1470 1471 1472 1473 1474 1475 1476 1477 1478 1479 1480 taʊn tʌn ˈdʌn.dʒən ˈtʌn.əl dʌst dɒk tɔːk tɔːk ˌdɒk.jʊˈmen.tər.i ˈtæk.si ˈdɒk.tər tæks ˈdɒk.jʊ.mənt ˌdɒk.jʊˈmen.tər.i tæŋk ˈdɒŋ.ki ˈdɔː.tər tɒp tɒp-klɑːs tɒp-ˈsiː.krət ˈtɒp.ɪk tɒp-stɑːr dæm ˈdæm.ɪdʒ ˈtɔɪ.lət ˈtɔɪ.lət-səʊp town ton dungeon tunnel dust dock talk talkies (cinema) documentary taxi doctor tax document documentary tank donkey daughter top (the head) top class top secret topic top star dam damage toilet toilet soap 164 ʈaʋun ʈan ʈandʒan ʈanal ʈasʈ ʈaak ʈaak ʈaakiis ʈaakkumenʈaɾi ʈaakci ʈaakʈaɾ ʈaaks ʈaakumenʈ ʈaakumenʈʈaɾi ʈaaŋk ʈaaŋki ʈaaʈʈaɾ ʈaap ʈaapklaas ʈaapciikɾeʈ ʈaappik ʈaapsʈaaɾ ʈaam ʈaameedʒ ʈaajleʈ ʈaajleʈcoop 1481 1482 1483 1484 1485 1486 1487 1488 1489 1490 1491 1492 1493 1494 1495 1496 1497 1498 1499 1500 1501 1502 1503 1504 1505 1506 tɔɪz dɑːk ˈtɑː.gɪt tɔːtʃ tɑːˈpɔː.lɪn ˈdɑː.lɪŋ dɑːn ˈtɑː.gɪt ˈtæl.kəmˌpaʊ.dər ˈdɒl.ər ˈtæl.i dɑːnt s dɑːnt s ˈtɒnt .səlz ˈtɒn.ɪk tɒs dæʃ dæʃ diː eɪ tiː eɪ tiː tiː ɑːr ˈtɪk.ɪt dɪ'kɒkʃən dɪkˈteɪt dɪkˈteɪ.tər dɪkˈteɪ.ʃən toys to be dark target torch tarpaulin (waterproof material) darling to darn target talcum powder dollar to tally dance to dance tonsils tonic to toss (as a coin) dash (usually with reference to an accident) to dash (as a cash involved in an accident) D.A. (Dearness Allowance) T.A. (Travelling Allowance) T.T.R. (one who checks tickets in a train) ticket decoction to dictate dictator dictation 165 ʈaajs ʈaaɾk aaka iɾu ʈaaɾkeʈ ʈaaɾc ʈaaɾpaalin ʈaaɾliŋ ʈaaɾn paɳɳu ʈaaɾdʒeʈ ʈaalkam paʋuʈaɾ ʈaalaɾ ʈaali paɳɳu ʈaans ʈaans paɳɳu ʈaansils ʈaanik ʈaas paɳɳu ʈaaʂ ʈaaʂ paɳɳu ʈi.e. ʈi.e. ʈi.ʈi.aaɾ ʈikkaʈ ʈikkaaʂan ʈikʈeeʈ paɳɳu ʈikʈeeʈaɾ ʈikʈeeʂan 1507 1508 1509 1510 1511 1512 1513 1514 1515 1516 1517 1518 1519 1520 1521 1522 1523 1524 1525 1526 1527 1528 1529 1530 1531 1532 degree (a rank given on completing university studies) to declare declaration dignity dictionary degree (a rank given on completing university studies) tincture (medical) tinker (a trade) to ditch (to abandon) to disappoint disappointment December discipline to discipline to take disciplinary action design ditto to deduct detergent to detach detective to detach deputy to tip (for a service) departure depot 166 dɪˈgriː dɪˈkleər ˌdek.ləˈreɪ.ʃən ˈdɪg.nɪ.ti ˈdɪk.ʃən.ər.i dɪˈgriː ˈtɪŋk.tʃər ˈtɪŋ.kər dɪtʃ ˌdɪs.əˈpɔɪnt ˌdɪs.əˈpɔɪnt.mənt dɪˈsem.bər ˈdɪs.ə.plɪn ˈdɪs.ə.plɪn ˌdɪs.əˈplɪn.ər.i-ˈæk.ʃən dɪˈzaɪn ˈdɪt.əʊ dɪˈdʌkt dɪˈtɜː.dʒənt dɪˈtætʃ dɪˈtek.tɪv dɪˈtætʃ ˈdep.jʊ.ti tɪp dɪˈpɑː.tʃər ˈdep.əʊ ʈikɾi ʈikleeɾ paɳɳu ʈikɭaɾeeʂan ʈikniʈi ʈikʂanaɾi ʈikiɾi ʈiŋkcaɾ ʈiŋkaɾ ʈic paɳɳu ʈicapaajinʈ paɳɳu ʈicapaajinʈmenʈ ʈicampaɾ ʈicipɭin ʈicipɭin paɳɳu ʈicipɭinaɾi aakʂan eʈu ʈicain ʈiʈʈoo ʈiʈakʈ paɳɳu ʈiʈaɾdʒenʈ ʈiʈaac paɳɳu ʈiʈekʈiʋ ʈiʈeec paɳɳu ʈipʈi ʈip paɳɳu ʈippaaɾccaɾ ʈippoo 1533 1534 1535 1536 1537 1538 1539 1540 1541 1542 1543 1544 1545 1546 1547 1548 1549 1550 1551 1552 1553 1554 1555 1556 1557 1558 dɪˈpləʊ.mə tɪps ˈtɪf.ɪn ˈtɪf.ɪn-ˈkæriər ˈtɪf.ɪn dɪˈfent s dɪˈpɑːt.mənt ˈtɪfɪn-ˈkæriər dɪˈfent s dɪˈfɒlt dɪˈfɒlt ˈdɪf.ɪ.kəlt ˈdiː.fekt(n)/dɪˈfekt(v) dɪˈfek.tɪv dɪm ˈtɪm.bər dɪˈmɑːnd dɪˈmɑːnd dɪər ˈdjuː.ti ˈdjuː.plɪ.keɪt tjuːn tjuːˈɪʃ.ən drʌg trʌŋk kɔːl trʌŋk rəʊd diploma to give tips (advise) tiffin tiffin carrier to have tiffin defense department tiffin carrier defense default to default difficult defect to be defective to be dim timber demand to demand dear duty duplicate tune to give tuition drug trunk call trunk road 167 ʈipɭoomaa ʈips koʈu ʈipan ʈipankaaɾijaɾ ʈipan paɳɳu ʈipans ʈipaaɾʈmenʈ ʈipinkaaɾijaɾ ʈifans ʈifaalʈ ʈifaalʈ paɳɳu ʈifikalʈ ʈifekʈ ʈifekʈ aaka iɾu ʈim aaka iɾu ʈimpaɾ ʈimaaɳʈ ʈimaaɳʈ paɳɳu ʈijaɾ ʈijuuʈʈi ʈijuupɭikeeʈ ʈijuun ʈijuuʂan koʈu ʈiɾak ʈiɾaŋkkaal ʈiɾaŋkɾooʈu 1559 1560 1561 1562 1563 1564 1565 1566 1567 1568 1569 1570 1571 1572 1573 1574 1575 1576 1577 1578 1579 1580 1581 1582 1583 1584 ˈtrʌb.l ˈtrʌb.l drʌm ˈtræk.tər drɑːft drɑːft drɑːft ˈdrɑːfts.mən træm ˈdrɑː.mə ˈdrɑː.mə ˈdrɔː.ɪŋ ˈdrɔː.ɪŋ-ruːm ˈtrɒl.i ˈtræv.əl.əzˌtʃek trænˈzɪs.tər ˈtræns.fɜːr(n)/ trænsˈfɜːr(v) trænsˈfɔː.mər trænsˈleɪt drɪŋk drɪŋk ˈtrɪp.l - ɪˈvent drɪl drɪl ˈtreɪd.mɑːk trəˈdɪʃ.ən.əl trouble to trouble drum tractor draft to draft draft draftsmen tram drama to organise a drama (fig. to make a scene) drawing drawing room trolly travellers cheque transistor (radio) transfer transformer to translate drink to drink triple event (horse racing) drill (gymnastics) to drill (technical) trademark traditional 168 ʈiɾapiɭ ʈiɾapiɭ paɳɳu ʈiɾam ʈiɾaakʈaɾ ʈiɾaapʈ ʈiɾaapʈ paɳɳu ʈiɾaafʈ ʈiɾaafʈsmeen ʈiɾaam ʈiɾaamaa ʈiɾaamaa pooʈu ʈiɾaajiŋ ʈiɾaajiŋɾuum ʈiɾaali ʈiɾaaʋelaɾscek ʈiɾaancisʈaɾ ʈiɾaanspaɾ ʈiɾaansfaaɾmaɾ ʈiɾaansleeʈ paɳɳu ʈiɾiŋk ʈiɾiŋk paɳɳu ʈiɾipiɭ iʋenʈ ʈiɾil ʈiɾil paɳɳu ʈiɾeʈmaaɾk ʈiɾeʈiʂanal 1585 1586 1587 1588 1589 1590 1591 1592 1593 1594 1595 1596 1597 1598 1599 1600 1601 1602 1603 1604 1605 1606 1607 1608 1609 1610 treɪn treɪn dres dres ˈdres.ɪŋ-ˈteɪ.bl ˈdres.ɪŋ-ruːm ˌdiːˈreɪl treɪs traɪ traɪ ˈdraɪv.ɪn draɪv ˈdraɪ.vər ˈdraɪ.vɪŋ ˈlaɪ.sənt s ˈdraɪ.vɪŋ skuːl dɪˈleɪ dɪˈleɪ ˈdɪv.ɪ.dend dɪˈvɪʒ.ən dɪˈvaɪd tɪn ˈtɪŋk.tʃər ˈdɪn.ər dɪʃ dɪˈskʌr.ɪdʒ dɪˈskʌv.ər train to train dress (clothes) to dress dressing table dressing room derail to trace try to try drive in (a restaurant where one is served in the car) to drive driver driving license driving school delay to delay dividend division to divide tin tincture (medical) dinner dish to discourage to discover 169 ʈiɾejn ʈiɾejn paɳɳu ʈiɾes ʈiɾes paɳɳu ʈiɾessiŋʈeepiɭ ʈiɾessiŋɾuum ʈiɾeejl ʈiɾees paɳɳu ʈiɾai ʈiɾai paɳɳu ʈiɾaiʋ in ʈiɾaiʋ paɳɳu ʈiɾaiʋaɾ ʈiɾaiʋiŋ laicens liɾaiʋiŋscuul ʈilee ʈilee paɳɳu ʈiʋiʈenʈ ʈiʋiʂan ʈiʋaiʈ paɳɳu ʈin ʈincaɾ ʈinnaɾ ʈiʂ ʈiskaɾedʒ paɳɳu ʈiskaʋaɾ paɳɳu 1611 1612 1613 1614 1615 1616 1617 1618 1619 1620 1621 1622 1623 1624 1625 1626 1627 1628 1629 1630 1631 1632 1633 1634 1635 1636 dɪˈskʌv.ər.i ˈdɪs.kaʊnt(n)/dɪˈskaʊnt(v) ˈdɪs.kaʊnt dɪˈskaʊnt ˌdɪs.kənˈtɪn.juː dɪˈskʌʃ.ən dɪˈskʌs dɪsˈgreɪs dɪˈskwɒl.ɪ.faɪ dɪsˈtʃɑːdʒ ˈdɪs.trɪkt dɪˈstrɪb.jʊ.tər dɪˈstrɪb.juːt ˈdɪs.tənt ˈdɪs.trɪkt dɪˈstɪld-ˈwɔː.tər dɪˈstem.pər dɪˈspjuːt dɪˈspjuːt dɪˈspætʃ dɪˈspəʊz dɪˈsmɪs dɪˈzɜː.vɪŋ ˌdɪs.əˈplɪn.ər.i-ˈæk.ʃən ˈdɪs.ə.plɪn ˈdɪs.ə.plɪn discovery discount to give a discount to discount to discontinue discussion to discuss to become a disgrace to disqualify to discharge district distributor to distribute distant district distilled water distemper to become a dispute to dispute to dispatch to dispose to dismiss deserving to take disciplinary action discipline to discipline 170 ʈiskaʋaɾi ʈiskaʋuɳʈ ʈiskaʋuɳʈ koʈu ʈiskaʋuɳʈ paɳɳu ʈiskanʈinjuu paɳɳu ʈiskaʂan ʈiskas paɳɳu ʈiskiɾees aaku ʈiskuʋaalifai paɳɳu ʈiscaaɾdʒ paɳɳu ʈisʈɾikʈ ʈisʈɾipjuuʈʈaɾ ʈisʈɾipjuuʈ paɳɳu ʈisʈanʈ ʈisʈiɾikʈ ʈisʈilʈʋaaʈʈaɾ ʈisʈempaɾ ʈispjuuʈ aaku ʈispjuuʈ paɳɳu ʈispaaʈc paɳɳu ʈispoos paɳɳu ʈismis paɳɳu ʈisaɾʋiŋ ʈisippiɭaneɾi aakʂan eʈu ʈisipɭin ʈisipɭin paɳɳu 1637 1638 1639 1640 1641 1642 1643 1644 1645 1646 1647 1648 1649 1650 1651 1652 1653 1654 1655 1656 1657 1658 1659 1660 1661 1662 ˈdɪs.ən.tər.i dɪˈzaɪn tiː tiː viː ˈtiːk.wʊd ˈtiː.tʃər tiːtʃ ˈdiː.zəl ˈdiː.zəl-ˈen.dʒɪn ˈdiː.sənt diːd ˈtiː.di.əs ˈdiː.teɪlz dɪˈteɪn ˈtiː.taɪm tiː tiːm dɪəl dɪˈlʌks ˈdiː.lər ˈtiːnˌeɪ.dʒər ˈdiː.sənt tiːz ˈtiː.spuːn ˈdiː.sənt .si tjuːˈtɔː.ri.əl - ˈkɒl.ɪdʒ dysentery design tea T.V. (television) teak wood teacher to teach diesel diesel engine to be decent deed (legal) to be tedious details to detain tea time to make tea team deal deluxe dealer teenager to be decent to tease tea spoon decency tutorial college 171 ʈisenʈɾi ʈisain ʈii ʈii ʋii ʈiikʋuʈ ʈiiccaɾ ʈiic paɳɳu ʈiical ʈiical eɲcin ʈiicanʈ aaka iɾu ʈiiʈ ʈiiʈijas aaka iɾu ʈiiʈeejls ʈiiʈeejn paɳɳu ʈii ʈaim ʈii pooʈu ʈiim ʈiil ʈiilaks ʈiilaɾ ʈiineedʒaɾ ʈiisanʈ aaka iɾu ʈiis paɳɳu ʈiispuun ʈiisansi ʈuʈooɾijalkaaleedʒ 1663 1664 1665 1666 1667 1668 1669 1670 1671 1672 1673 1674 1675 1676 1677 1678 1679 1680 1681 1682 1683 1684 1685 1686 1687 1688 ˈdjuː.ti twaɪn ˈdjuː.plɪ.kət(n)/ˈdjuː.plɪ.keɪt(v) djuˈet tʊər tʊər tʊər ˈtʊə.rɪŋ ˈtʊə.rɪst ˈtʊə.rɪst - bʌs tuːlz dek ˌdek.əˈreɪ.ʃən ˈtek.nɪ.kəl ˈtek.nɪ.kəl-ˈtreɪ.nɪŋ ˈtek.nɪˌkʌl.ər tekˈnɪʃ.ən tekˈnɪʃ.ən ˈtek.staɪlz ˈdez.ɪg.neɪt ˌdez.ɪgˈneɪ.ʃən ˈdep.jʊ.ti dɪˈpɒz.ɪt dɪˈpɒz.ɪt dɪˈpɒz.ɪ.tər dɪˈpɒz.ɪ.tər duty twine duplicate duet tour to tour to plan a tour touring tourist tourist bus tools deck ( of a ship) decoration technical technical training technic colour technician technician textiles to designate designation deputy deposit to deposit depositor depositor 172 ʈujuuʈʈi ʈuʋain ʈuupɭikeeʈ ʈuujeʈ ʈuuɾ ʈuuɾ paɳɳu ʈuuɾ pooʈu ʈuuɾiŋ ʈuuɾisʈ ʈuuɾisʈ pas ʈuuls ʈek ʈekkoɾeʂan ʈeknikal ʈeknikalʈɾeejniŋ ʈeknikalaɾ ʈekniicitan ʈekniiʂijan ʈeksʈails ʈecikneeʈ paɳɳu ʈecikneeʂan ʈeʈʈi ʈepaaciʈ ʈepaaciʈ paɳɳu ʈepaasiʈʈaɾ ʈepaasiʈaɾ 1689 1690 1691 1692 1693 1694 1695 1696 1697 1698 1699 1700 1701 1702 1703 1704 1705 1706 1707 1708 1709 1710 1711 1712 1713 1714 ˈdep.jʊ.ti ˈtem.pər ˈtem.pər.ər.i ˈtem.prə.tʃər ˈtem.pəʊ dɪˈmʌrɪdʒ peɪ dɪˈmʌrɪdʒ ˈdem.ən.streɪ.tər ˈdem.ən.streɪt ˌdem.ənˈstreɪ.ʃən ˈteɪ.lər ˈdeɪ.li tɜːm ˈtɜː.mɪ.nəs ˈtɜː.mɪ.neɪt ˈter.əs ˈter.ə.liːn N.A. ˈdel.tə ˈtel.ɪ.fəʊn ˈtel.ɪ.fəʊn - ˈɒp.ər.eɪ.tər ˈtel.ɪ.fəʊn - ɪksˈtʃeɪnd ʒ ˈtel.ɪ.fəʊn - buːð dɪˈlɪv.ər dɪˈlɪv.ər.i ˈtel.ɪ.vɪʒ.ən deputy temper temporary temperature tempo (a threewheeled carrier motor vehicle) demurrage to pay demurrage demonstrator to demonstrate demonstration tailor daily term terminus to terminate terrace terelene (a type of cloth) terene (a type of cloth) delta telephone telephone operator telephone exchange telephone booth to deliver delivery (child-birth) television 173 ʈepuʈi ʈempaɾ ʈempaɾeɾi ʈempaɾeeccaɾ ʈempoo ʈemaɾeedʒ ʈemaɾeedʒ pee paɳɳu ʈemaansʈɾeeʈʈaɾ ʈemaansʈɾeeʈ paɳɳu ʈemaansʈɾeeʂan ʈejlaɾ ʈejli ʈeɾm ʈeɾminas ʈeɾmineeʈ pnnu ʈeɾas ʈeɾiliin ʈeɾiin ʈelʈaa ʈelifaan ʈelifaan aapaɾeeʈaɾ ʈelifaan eksceeɲc ʈelifaan puut ʈeliʋaɾ paɳɳu ʈeliʋaɾi ʈeliʋiʂan 1715 1716 1717 1718 1719 1720 1721 1722 1723 1724 1725 1726 1727 1728 1729 1730 1731 1732 1733 1734 1735 1736 1737 1738 1739 1740 developed area to develop development tent to set up a tent tender tender deposit dentist tennis tension tenant desk test to test test match testimonial despatch rider (a miltary messenger who uses a motorcycle) take (in film making) take-off danger date tape to tape to record on tape tape recorder table 174 dɪˈvel.əpt - ˈeə.ri.ə dɪˈvel.əp dɪˈvel.əp.mənt tent tent ˈten.dər ˈten.dər - dɪˈpɒz.ɪt ˈden.tɪst ˈten.ɪs ˈtent .ʃən ˈten.ənt desk test test test - mætʃ ˌtes.tɪˈməʊ.ni.əl dɪˈspætʃ - ˈraɪ.dər teɪk ˈteɪk.ɒf ˈdeɪn.dʒər deɪt teɪp teɪp teɪp + rɪˈkɔːd teɪp - rɪˈkɔː.dər ˈteɪ.bl ʈeʋalapʈ eeɾijaa ʈeʋalap paɳɳu ʈeʋalapmenʈ ʈenʈ ʈenʈ paɳɳu ʈenʈaɾ ʈenʈaɾʈipaasiʈ ʈenʈisʈ ʈennis ʈenʂan ʈenenʈ ʈesk ʈesʈ ʈesʈ paɳɳu ʈesʈmaaʈc ʈesʈimoonijal ʈespaaʈcɾaiʈaɾ ʈeek ʈeek aap ʈeeɲcaɾ ʈeeʈ ʈeep ʈeep paɳɳu ʈeepɾikkaaɾʈ paɳɳu ʈeepɾikkaaɾʈaɾ ʈeepiɭ 1741 1742 1743 1744 1745 1746 1747 1748 1749 1750 1751 1752 1753 1754 1755 1756 1757 1758 1759 1760 1761 1762 1763 1764 1765 1766 ˈteɪ.bl ˈdeɪ.li teɪst teɪst daɪ taɪ taɪ daɪ taɪt taɪt taɪts taɪp taɪp ˈtaɪ.pɪŋ ˈtaɪpˌraɪ.tər ˈtaɪ.fɔɪd ˈtaɪ.pɪst taɪm ˈtaɪmˌkiː.pər ˈtaɪmˌbɒm da ɪˈrekt .li da ɪˈrekt da ɪˈrek.tər dɪˈrek.tər.i da ɪˈrek.ʃən ˈtaɪ.tl to lay the table daily taste to taste dye tie to put on a tie to dye to be tight to tighten tights (very narrow trousers) type to type typing typewriter typhoid typist time time keeper time bomb directly to direct director directory direction tile 175 ʈeepiɭ pooʈu ʈeejli ʈeesʈ ʈeesʈ paɳɳu ʈai ʈai ʈai kaʈʈu ʈai paɳɳu ʈaiʈ aaka iɾu ʈaiʈ paɳɳu ʈaiʈs ʈaip ʈaip paɳɳu ʈaippiŋ ʈaipɾaiʈʈaɾ ʈaipaajiʈ ʈaippisʈ ʈaim ʈaimkiippaɾ ʈaimpaam ʈaiɾakʈ aaka ʈaiɾakʈ paɳɳu ʈaiɾakʈaɾ ʈaiɾakʈaɾi ʈaiɾakʂan ʈail 1767 1768 1769 1770 1771 1772 1773 1774 1775 1776 1777 1778 1779 1780 1781 1782 1783 1784 1785 1786 1787 1788 1789 1790 1791 1792 ˈteɪ.lər ˈdaɪ.ə.lɒg daɪv da ɪˈvɜːt dɪˈvɔːs ˈdaɪ.nə.məʊ ˈdaɪ.nɪŋ - hɔːl dəʊ ˈneɪt dəʊ ˈneɪ.ʃən ˈtəʊ.kən dɔːr ˈtəʊl.geɪt təʊn dəʊs dəʊs təʊst daʊt daʊt təʊ ˈdaʊ.ri ˈθrɪl.ɪŋ ˌθriːˈstɑːr θruː θrəʊ bɔːl tʌtʃ ʌp tʌtʃ ʌp tailor dialogue (script in a play/or film) to dive to divert divorce dynamo (technical) dinning hall to donate donation token door toll gate tone dose to give a dose of (fig.) to scold toast doubt to doubt to tow dowry to be thrilling three star (hotel) through throw ball touch up (in painting) to touch (in painting) 176 ʈailaɾ ʈailaak ʈaiʋ paɳɳu ʈaiʋaɾʈ paɳɳu ʈaiʋaɾs ʈainamoo ʈainiŋhaal ʈoneeʈ paɳɳu ʈoneeʈʂan ʈookkan ʈooɾ ʈoolkeeʈ ʈoon ʈoos ʈoos koʈu ʈoosʈ ʈauʈ ʈauʈ paɳɳu ʈau paɳɳu ʈauɾi tɾilliŋ aaka iɾu tɾiisʈʈaaɾ tɾuu tɾoopaal taʈcap taʈcap paɳɳu 1793 1794 1795 1796 1797 1798 1799 1800 1801 1802 1803 1804 1805 1806 1807 1808 1809 1810 1811 1812 1813 1814 1815 1816 1817 1818 ðæts gʊd ˈθʌr.ə ˈθʌr.ə.feər θæŋk juː θæŋks θɪk ˈθɪk.nəs θɪŋk ˈθɪŋ.kər ˈθɪə.tər/θiˈet.ər ˈθrɪl.ɪŋ ˈθrɪl.ɪŋ θɪn ˈθɪn.ər θiːf θiːm θɜːd ˈθɜː.məl θəˈmɒm.ɪ.tər ˈθɜː.məs ˈθɜː.məs - flɑːsk θɜː.məʊ - ˈnjuː.klɪər ˈdeɪ.nɪʃ nʌt ˈnʌm.bər nɜːs that's good thorough thorough fare thank you thanks to be thick thickness to think thinker theatre (cinema house) thrilling … to be thrilling to be thin thinner (a solvent for paint) thief theme third thermal thermometer thermos thermos flask thermonuclear danish nut number nurse 177 taʈskuʈ taɾoo taɾoofeeɾ taaŋkjuu taaŋks tik aaka iɾu tiknes tiŋk paɳɳu tiŋkaɾ tijaʈʈaɾ tiɾilliŋ tiɾilliŋ aaka iɾu tin aaka iɾu tinnaɾ tiif tiim teɾʈ teɾmal teɾmaamiiʈʈaɾ teɾmaas teɾmaasfɭaask teɾmoo nuukɭijaɾ teeniʂ naʈ nampaɾ naɾs 1819 1820 1821 1822 1823 1824 1825 1826 1827 1828 1829 1830 1831 1832 1833 1834 1835 1836 1837 1838 1839 1840 1841 1842 1843 1844 ˈnɜː.sər.i ˈnɜː.sɪŋ - həʊm nəʊ ˈvem.bər ˈnæp.kɪn ˈnæp.θəˌlin-bɔlz ˈnæp.θəˌlin-bɔlz ˈnɒm.ɪ.nəl ˈnɒm.ɪ.neɪt ˌnɒm.ɪˈneɪ.ʃən nɔɪz ˈnɔɪ.zi ˈnɔː.məl ˈnɒv.əl ˈnɒv.əl ˈnɒn.sənt s ˌnɒnˈrez.ɪ.dənt nɒn - ˌvedʒ.ɪˈteə.ri.ən ˈnɪk.l ˈnɪk.neɪm ˈnɪt.ɪŋ ˈnɪt.ɪŋ - ˈniː.dl nɪt nɪb ˈnɪp.l ˈniː.ɒn - saɪn ˈniː.ɒn - laɪt nursery nursing home November napkin napthalene balls napthalene balls nominal to nominate nomination noise noisey normal novel to read a novel nonsense (considered to be an abusive word) non resident non vegetarian nickel nickname knitting knitting needle to knit nib nipple neon sign neon light 178 naɾsaɾi naɾsiŋhoom naʋampaɾ naapkin naaptaliinpaals naaftaliinpaals naaminal naamineeʈ paɳɳu naamineeʂan naajs naajsi naaɾmal naaʋal naaʋal paʈi naancens naanɾesiʈenʈ naanʋedʒiʈeeɾijan nikkal nikneem niʈʈiŋ niʈʈiŋniiʈil niʈ paɳɳu nip nippiɭ nijaancain nijaanlaiʈ 1845 1846 1847 1848 1849 1850 1851 1852 1853 1854 1855 1856 1857 1858 1859 1860 1861 1862 1863 1864 1865 1866 1867 1868 1869 1870 njuː ˈnjuː.sənt s njuːz ˈnjuːzˌpeɪ.pər nɪl niːt ˈniːt.li niːt ˈniː.dl niːd ˈnuː.dl z nek nɪˈglekt ˈnek.ləs nekst ˈneg.ə.tɪv nəˈgəʊ.ʃi.eɪt nəˌgəʊ.ʃiˈeɪ.ʃən net net neɪl - ˈpɒl.ɪʃ ˈnɜː.vəs ˈnes.ə.ser.i ˈneɪ.tʃər ˈnætʃ.ər.əl ˈneɪ.tɪv new nuisance news newspaper nil neat neatly to be neat needle need noodles neck to neglect necklace next negative to negotiate negotiation net nett nail polish to be nervous necessary nature natural native 179 nijuu nijuucens nijuus nijuuspeeppaɾ nil niiʈ niiʈ aaka niiʈ aaka iɾu niiʈil niiʈu nuuʈils nek neklekʈ paɳɳu nekles neksʈ nekaʈiʋ nekooʂijeeʈ paɳɳu nekooʂijeeʂan neʈ neʈ nejilpaaliʂ neɾʋas aaka iɾu nesasaɾi neeccaɾ neeccaɾal neeʈiʋ 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 1881 1882 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 ˈneɪ.tɪv - pleɪs neɪm neɪm - bɔːd neɪl - ˈpɒl.ɪʃ ˈnær.əʊ ˈneɪ.vi ˈnæʃ.ən.əl ˈnæʃ.ən.əl - ˈænt .θəm ˈnæʃ.ən.əl - flæg naɪt ˈnaɪt.klʌb ˈnaɪt.gaʊn ˈnaɪt.klʌb ˈnaɪt.ˌdjuː.ti ˈnaɪt.ˌdjuː.ti ˈnaɪt.ˌwɒtʃ.mən naɪf ˈnaɪ.lɒn naɪs naɪs nəʊ ˈtɔː.ri.əs nəʊ nəʊ - ˈen.tri nəʊt ˈnəʊ.tɪs ˈnəʊ.tɪs native place name name board nail polish narrow navy national national anthem national flag night night club nightgown night club night duty night duty night watchman knife nylon to be nice to coax, to cajole (to nicen) notorious no no entry note notice to give notice 180 neeʈiʋpɭees neem neempooɾʈ neejlpooliʂ neeɾoo neeʋi neeʂanal neeʂanal aantem neeʂanal fɭeek naiʈ naiʈkɭap naiʈkaʋun naiʈkiɭap naiʈʈijuuʈʈi naiʈʈijuuʈi naiʈʋaacmeen naif nailaan nais aaka iɾu nais paɳɳu noʈʈooɾijas noo noo enʈɾi nooʈ nooʈʈiis nooʈʈiis koʈu 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 1921 1922 ˈnəʊ.tɪs ˈnəʊ.tɪs ˈnəʊ.tɪs.bɔːd ˈnəʊt.bʊk nəʊt ˈnəʊt.bʊk ˈnəʊ.tɪs ˈnəʊ.tɪs ˈnəʊ.tɪs ˈnəʊ.tɪs ˈnəʊ.tɪs.bɔːd nəʊ juːz ˈnəʊ.ʃən nəʊz - kʌt nəʊz - kʌt nəʊz - kʌt nəʊz - kʌt ˈbjuː.gl pjʊər ˈpiː.ən ˈprez.ənt ˈprez.ənt prɪˈzent ˈbrʌð.ər prəˈməʊ.ʃən brʌʃ to notice to put up a notice noticeboard note book (an exercise notebook) to note note book (an exercise notebook) notice to give notice to notice to put up a notice noticeboard no use notion insult/humiliation (lit. nose cut) to drop an insult (lit. to give a nose cut) to insult/ to humiliate to get an insult/ to get humiliated bugle to be pure peon present to give a present to present brother promotion brush 181 nooʈʈiis paɳɳu nooʈʈiis pooʈu nooʈʈiispooɾʈu nooʈʈu nooʈ paɳɳu nooʈpuk nooʈiis nooʈiis koʈu nooʈiis paɳɳu nooʈiis pooʈu nooʈiis pooɾʈu noojuus nooʂan nooskaʈ nooskaʈ koʈu nooskaʈ paɳɳu nooskaʈ ʋaaŋku pjuukiɭ pjuuɾ aaka iɾu pjuun pɾacanʈ pɾacanʈ koʈu pɾacanʈ paɳɳu pɾataɾ pɾamooʂan pɾaʂ 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 ˈpreʃ.ər - ˈkʊk.ər presˈtiːd ʒ - ˈɪʃ.uː ˈbræk.ɪt ˈbræk.ɪt ˈpræk.tɪ.kəl prækˈtɪʃ.ən.ər ˈpræk.tɪs ˈpræk.tɪs brɑːnt ʃ brɑːnt ʃ - ˈɒf.ɪs brɔːd ˈprɒt.ɪ.stənt brænd ˌprɒp.əˈgæn.də ˌprɒp.əˈgæn.də ˈprɒp.ər ˈprɒb.ləm ˈprɒf.ɪt prɒmp t prɒmp t ˈprɒm.ɪ.sər.iˌnəʊt ˈprɒm.ɪ.nənt ˈprɒm.ɪs ˈbræn.di ˈprɒdʒ.ekt(n)/ prəˈdʒekt(v) ˈprɒs.tɪ.tjuːt pressure cooker prestige issue bracket bracket practical practitioner (medical, legal) practice to practice branch… branch office broad protestant brand propaganda to make propaganda proper problem profit prompt to be prompt promissory note prominent to promise brandy project prostitute 182 pɾaʂaɾkukkaɾ pɾasʈidʒ isju pɾaakkaʈ pɾaakkeʈ pɾaakʈikal pɾaakʈiʂanaɾ pɾaakʈis pɾaakʈis paɳɳu pɾaaɲc pɾaaɲc aapiis pɾaaʈ pɾaaʈʈasʈanʈ pɾaaɳʈ pɾaappakaanʈaa pɾaappakaanʈaa paɳɳu pɾaappaɾ pɾaapɭam pɾaafiʈ pɾaampʈ pɾaampʈ aaka pɾaamicaɾinooʈʈu pɾaaminanʈ pɾaamis paɳɳu pɾaanʈi pɾaadʒekʈ pɾaasʈiʈijuuʈ 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 ˈprɒs.pekt prəˈspek.təs prəˈspek.təs brɪdʒ prɪˈtend ˌprep.ərˈeɪ.ʃən prɪˈpeər ˈpriː.mi.əm ˈbrɪl.i.ənt ˈbrɪl.i.ənt - aɪˈdɪə prɪnt prɪnt ˈprɪn.tɪŋ - pres ˈprɪn.tɪŋ - pres ˈprɪnt .sɪ.pəl ˈprɪnt .sɪ.pl ˈbrɪsk.li prɪˈskraɪb prɪˈskrɪp.ʃən prɪˈzaɪd ˈpriː.mi.əm pruːf pruːf pruːf ˈpreg.nənt ˈprez.ənt(n)/prɪˈzent(v) prospect prospectus prospectus bridge to pretend preparation to prepare premium brilliant brilliant idea print to print printing press printing press principal principle briskly to prescribe prescription to preside premium proof to give proof to proof (printing) pregnant present 183 pɾaaspekʈ pɾaaspekʈʈas pɾaaspekʈas pɾiʈdʒ pɾiʈanʈ paɳɳu pɾippaɾeeʂan pɾippeeɾ paɳɳu pɾimijam pɾillijanʈ pɾillijanʈ aiʈijaa pɾinʈ pɾinʈ paɳɳu pɾinʈiŋ pɾes pɾinʈiŋpiɾas pɾinsipaal pɾinsipil pɾisk aaka pɾiskɾaip paɳɳu pɾiskiɾipʂan pɾisaiʈ paɳɳu pɾiimijam pɾuuf pɾuuf koʈu pɾuuf paɳɳu pɾeknanʈ pɾecanʈ 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 ˈprez.ɪ.dənt .si - ˈmædʒ.ɪ.streɪt ˈprez.ɪ.dənt frent ʃ bred frend bredθ ˈpredʒ.ʊ.dɪs ˈpredʒ.ʊ.dɪs ˈpreʃ.ər - ˈkʊk.ər ˈpreʃ.əs pres presˈtiːd ʒ - ˈɪʃ.uː pres breɪk ˈbreɪk.daʊn breɪk breɪk ˈbrek.fəst preɪ freɪm breɪn preɪz preər braɪb praɪˈɒr.ɪ.ti ˈpraɪ.vət presidency magistrate president french bread friend breadth prejudice to prejudice pressure cooker precious press prestige issue to press brake breakdown to brake to apply the brake breakfast to pray frame brain to praise prayer bribe priority private 184 pɾeciʈansi maadʒisʈɾeeʈ pɾeciʈenʈ pɾeɲc pɾeʈ pɾeɳʈu pɾet pɾedʒiʈis pɾedʒiʈis paɳɳu pɾeʂaɾkukkaɾ pɾeʂajis pɾes pɾesʈiidʒ iʂju pɾes paɳɳu pɾeek pɾeekʈaun pɾeek paɳɳu pɾeek pooʈu pɾeekfaasʈ pɾee paɳɳu pɾeem pɾeejn pɾeejs paɳɳu pɾeejaɾ pɾaip pɾaijaaɾiʈʈi pɾaiʋeeʈ 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 price prize to proceed procedure protest to protest propeller proportion professor promotion provision provision store (grocery) procession to prohibit prohibition (refers to law prohibiting consumption of alcohol) broker progress programme broach to proceed to promote promotion brown plug blood pressure bluntly 185 praɪs praɪz prəʊ ˈsiːd prəˈsiː.dʒər ˈprəʊ.test(n)/prəˈtest(v) prəˈtest prəˈpel.ər prəˈpɔː.ʃən prəˈfes.ər prəˈməʊ.ʃən prəˈvɪʒ.ən prəˈvɪʒ.ən - stɔːr prəˈseʃ.ən prəˈhɪb.ɪt ˌprəʊ.h ɪˈbɪʃ.ən ˈbrəʊ.kər ˈprəʊ.gres(n)/prəˈgres(v) ˈprəʊ.græm brəʊtʃ prəʊ ˈsiːd prəˈməʊt prəˈməʊ.ʃən braʊn plʌg blʌd - ˈpreʃ.ər ˈblʌnt.li pɾais pɾais pɾociiʈ paɳɳu pɾociidʒaɾ pɾoʈesʈ pɾoʈesʈ paɳɳu pɾoppellaɾ pɾoppooɾʂan pɾofasaɾ pɾomooʂan pɾoʋiʂan pɾoʋiʂansʈooɾ pɾoseʂan pɾohipiʈ paɳɳu pɾohipiʂan pɾookkaɾ pɾookiɾas pɾookiɾaam pɾooc pɾoociiʈ paɳɳu pɾoomooʈ paɳɳu pɾoomooʂan pɾaun pɭak pɭaʈpɾaʂaɾ pɭanʈ aaka 2027 2028 2029 2030 2031 2032 2033 2034 2035 2036 2037 2038 2039 2040 2041 2042 2043 2044 2045 2046 2047 2048 2049 2050 2051 2052 blʌnt ˈblʌn.dər ˈplʌn.dər blʌf blʌf ˈplʌm.ər blæk blɒk ˈblæk.aʊt blɒk blæk - ˈmɑː.kɪt ˈblæk.meɪl ˈblæŋ.kɪt plɒt ˈblɒt..ɪŋ - ˈpeɪ.pər ˈplæt.ɪ.nəm plɒt plɒt ˈplæt.fɔːm ˈplæt.fɔːm ˈblæd.ər ˈplæt.ɪ.nəm plæn plæn plæn ˈflæʃ.bæk to be blunt blunder plunder bluff to bluff plumber black block black out to block black market blackmail blanket plot blotting paper platinum to plot to make/draw up a plot platform platform bladder platinum plan to plan to make/draw up a plan flash black (cinema) 186 pɭanʈ aaka iɾu pɭanʈaɾ pɭanʈaɾ pɭaf pɭaf paɳɳu pɭampaɾ pɭaak pɭaak pɭaak aʋuʈ pɭaak paɳɳu pɭaakmaaɾkkeʈ pɭaakmejil pɭaaŋkaʈ pɭaaʈ pɭaaʈʈiŋpeeppaɾ pɭaaʈʈinam pɭaaʈ paɳɳu pɭaaʈ pooʈu pɭaaʈpaaɾaam pɭaaʈfaaɾm pɭaaʈaɾ pɭaaʈinam pɭaan pɭaan paɳɳu pɭaan pooʈu pɭaaʂpaak 2053 2054 2055 2056 2057 2058 2059 2060 2061 2062 2063 2064 2065 2066 2067 2068 2069 2070 2071 2072 2073 2074 2075 2076 2077 2078 ˈplæs.tɪk ˈplæs.tɪk - ˈsɜː.dʒər.i bliːtʃ ˈbliː.tʃɪŋ - ˈpaʊ.dər pliːz bluː pleɪn pleɪg ˈblæk.bɔːd ˈblæk.meɪl pleɪt bleɪd ˈpleɪ.bæk ˈpleɪ.bɔɪ pleɪn pleɪn flaɪt - lefˈten.ənt ˈplaɪ.wʊd blaʊz ˈbʌk.ɪt ˈbʌk.ɪt ˈbʌŋ.gəl.əʊ ˈpʌŋk.tju.əl ˈpʌŋk.tʃər ˈbʌt.əks ˈbʌt.ər plastic plastic surgery bleach bleaching powder please blue to be plain plague blackboard blackmail plate blade play back (cinema) playboy plain plain flight lieutenant plywood blouse bucket bucket bungalow punctual puncture buttocks butter 187 pɭaasʈik pɭaasʈikcaɾdʒaɾi pɭiic pɭiicciŋpaʋuʈaɾ pɭiis pɭu plejin aaka iɾu pɭeek pɭeekpooɾʈ pɭeekmeejl pɭeeʈ pɭeeʈu pɭeepaak pɭeepaaj pɭeejn pɭeen pɭaiʈlepʈinenʈ pɭaiʋuʈ pɭaus pakkaʈ pakkeʈ paŋkaɭaa paŋcuʋal paɲcaɾ paʈʈaks paʈʈaɾ 2079 2080 2081 2082 2083 2084 2085 2086 2087 2088 2089 2090 2091 2092 2093 2094 2095 2096 2097 2098 2099 2100 2101 2102 2103 2104 ˈbʌt.ən pʌˈti ˈbʌt.lər ˈbʌdʒ.ɪt ˈbʌn.dl ˈpʌb.lɪk ˈpʌb.lɪk - ˈmiː.tɪŋ ˈpʌb.lɪk - ˈsɜː.vɪs ˌpʌb.lɪˈkeɪ.ʃən ˈpʌb.lɪʃ ˈpʌb.lɪ.ʃər pʌbˈlɪs.ɪ.ti pʌbˈlɪs.ɪ.ti bəˈfuːn bʌm pʌmp ˈbʌm.pər ˈbʌm.pər - krɒp ˈbʌm.pər pʌmp ˈpɜː.tʃəs ˈpɜː.sən.əl pəˈtɪk.jʊ.lərz bɜːθ - kənˈtrəʊl ˈbɜːθ.deɪ ˈpɜː.mɪt(n)/ pəˈmɪt(v) button puttee (type of leggings worn by policemen) butler budget bundle public public meeting public service (government civil service) publication to publish publisher publicity to give publicity buffoon bum pump bumper bumper crop bumper (automobile) pump purchase personal particulars birth control birthday permit 188 paʈʈan paʈʈi paʈlaɾ paʈdʒeʈ paɳʈil papɭik papɭikmiiʈʈiŋ papɭikcaɾʋiis papɭikeeʂan papɭiʂ paɳɳu papɭiʂaɾ papɭisiʈʈi papɭisiʈʈi koʈu pafuun pam pamp pamppaɾ pamppaɾkɾaap pampaɾ pampu paɾccees paɾcanal paɾʈʈikkulaɾs paɾtkaɳʈɾool paɾʈtʈee paɾmiʈ 2105 2106 2107 2108 2109 2110 2111 2112 2113 2114 2115 2116 2117 2118 2119 2120 2121 2122 2123 2124 2125 2126 2127 2128 2129 2130 pəˈmɪʃ.ən ˈfɜː.lɒŋ ˈfɜː.nɪ.tʃər pɜːs bɜːst ˈfɜːst ˈpɜː.sən ˈpɜː.sən.əl pəˈreɪd bʌlk - səˈplaɪ bʌlb pʌls bəˈluːn paʊər paʊər - ˈtɪl.ər ˈpaʊə.fəl ˈpaʊə.haʊs ˈpaʊ.dər paʊnd ˈbaʊn.dər.i ˈbaʊn.dər.i paʊnd ˈfaʊn.tɪn ˈfaʊn.tɪn - pen ˈfaʊn.tɪn - pen bʌn permission furlong furniture purse burst first person personal parade bulk supply bulb pulse balloon power power tiller powerful powerhouse powder pound boundary to mark/put a boundary pound (a sovereign) fountain fountain pen fountain pen bun 189 paɾmiʂan paɾlaaŋ paɾniccaɾ paɾs paɾsʈ paɾsʈ paɾsan paɾsanal paɾeeʈ palkcapɭai palp pals paluun paʋaɾ paʋaɾʈilliɾ paʋaɾful paʋaɾhaʋus paʋuʈaɾ paʋuɳʈ paʋuɳʈaɾi paʋuɳʈaɾi pooʈu paʋun paʋunʈan paʋunʈanpen paʋunʈanpeenu pan 2131 2132 2133 2134 2135 2136 2137 2138 2139 2140 2141 2142 2143 2144 2145 2146 2147 2148 2149 2150 2151 2152 2153 2154 2155 2156 ˈbʌn.jən bʌs bʌs - stɒp bʌs - stænd ˈbʌz.ər ˈpʌz.l bəˈzɑːr bæk bæg ˈpɒk.ɪt bæk - ˈkʌv.ər ˈpæk.ɪŋ ˈbæk.graʊnd ˈpæk.ɪt ˈfæk.tər.i bæk bæk - peɪdʒ ˈbæk.wəd - klɑːs bɒks ˈbɒk.sɪŋ ˈbæk.siːt bæŋk bæŋk bæt bætʃ pætʃ bunion bus bus stop bus stand buzzer puzzle bazaar back bag pocket back cover (printing/advertising) packing background packet factory to back (to reverse) backpage backward class box boxing back-seat bank bank bat (cricket) batch patch 190 panijan pas passʈaap passʈaanʈ passaɾ pasil padʒaaɾ paak paak paakkaʈ paakkaʋaɾ paakkiŋ paakkɾauɳʈ paakkeʈ paakʈaɾi paak paɳɳu paakpeedʒ paakʋaɾʈukɭaas paaks paaksiŋ paaksiiʈ paaŋk paaŋki paaʈ paaʈc paaʈc 2157 2158 2159 2160 2161 2162 2163 2164 2165 2166 2167 2168 2169 2170 2171 2172 2173 2174 2175 2176 2177 2178 2179 2180 2181 2182 ˈpæt.ən ˈbæt.ər.i ˈbɒt.l bæt ˈbæd.mɪn.tən bædʒ ˈbæt.smən ˈbɒd.ɪs ˈbɒd.i ˈbɒd.i.gɑːd ˈbɒd.ɪs bænd pænt ˈbænd ˌmɑː.stər bɒnd ˈbæn.dɪdʒ bɑːθ ˈbɑːθ.tʌb ˈbɑːθ.rʊm ˈpɒp.kɔːn pɒp - ˈmjuː.zɪk ˈpɒp.lɪn ˈpɒp.jʊ.lər bɒm ˈfæm.əl.i bɔɪ pattern battery bottle to bat (cricket) badminton badge batsman (cricket) bodice body bodyguard bodice band pant (meaning trousers) bandmaster bond (legal) bandage to take a bath bathtub bathroom popcorn pop music poplin ( a type of cloth) popular bomb family boy 191 paaʈʈaɾn paaʈʈaɾi paaʈʈil paaʈ paɳɳu paaʈminʈʈan paaʈdʒ paaʈsmeen paaʈi paaʈi paaʈikaaɾʈu paaʈis paaɳʈ paaɳʈ paaɳʈmaasʈaɾ paaɳʈu paaɳʈeedʒ paat eʈu paatʈap paatɾuum paapkaaɾn paapmijuucik paapɭin paapulaɾ paam paamili paaj 2183 2184 2185 2186 2187 2188 2189 2190 2191 2192 2193 2194 2195 2196 2197 2198 2199 2200 2201 2202 2203 2204 2205 2206 2207 2208 ˈbɔɪ.kɒt ˈbɔɪ.frend ˈbɔɪ.lər bɔɪl bɔɪl pɔɪnt pɔɪnt ˈpɔɪntsmən bɑːr pɑːk pɑːk ˈbɑː.gɪn ˈbɑː.gɪn ˈpɑː.səl bɑːr - səʊp pɑːt ˈpɑː.ti ˈpɑːt.nər bɔː.dər pɑːˈtɪʃ.ən ˈbɑː.bər ˈfɑː.mə.si ˈpɑː.lɪ.mənt ˌpɑː.lɪˈmen.tər.i ˈpɑː.səl ˈpɑː.səl to boycott boyfriend boiler boil to boil point to point pointsmen (railways) bar park to park bargain to bargain parcel bar soap (for washing clothes) part party partner border partition barber pharmacy parliament parliamentary parcel to parcel 192 paajkaaʈ paɳɳu paajfɾenʈ paajlaɾ paajil paajil paɳɳu paajinʈ paajinʈ paɳɳu paajinʈsmen paaɾ paaɾk paaɾk paɳɳu paaɾkeejn paaɾkeejn paɳɳu paaɾcel paaɾcoop paaɾʈ paaɾʈʈi paaɾʈnaɾ paaɾʈaɾ paaɾʈiʂan paaɾpaɾ paaɾmasi paaɾlimenʈ paaɾlimenʈaɾi paaɾsal paaɾsal paɳɳu 2209 2210 2211 2212 2213 2214 2215 2216 2217 2218 2219 2220 2221 2222 2223 2224 2225 2226 2227 2228 2229 2230 2231 2232 2233 2234 ˈpær.ə.ʃuːt fɑːm fɔːm ˈbær.əl bɔːl ˈbæl.kə.ni ˈbɔːl.pɔɪnt - pen ˈbæl.ənt s ˈbæl.ənt s ˈbæl.ənt s - ʃiːt ˈpɒl.ə.si ˈpɒl.ɪ.tɪks ˌpɒl.ɪˈtek.nɪk ˈpɒl.ɪ.θiːn ˈpɒl.ɪʃ ˈpɒl.ɪʃ ˈpɒl.ə.si ˈbæn.dɪdʒ bænz ˈbɒn.ɪt ˈbæn.ər ˈbæn.ər - ˈhed.laɪnz bɒs pɑːs ˈbɑː.skɪt ˈbɑː.skɪt.bɔːl parachute farm form barrel ball balcony ball point pen balance to balance balance sheet policy politics polytechnic (a technical teaching institution) polythene polish to polish policy bandage banns (christian) bonnet (automobile) banner banner headlines (newspaper) boss pass basket basketball 193 paaɾacuuʈ paaɾam paaɾam paaɾal paal paalkani paalpen paalans paalans paɳɳu paalansʂiiʈ paalici paaliʈiks paaliʈeknik paalitiin paaliʂ paaliʂ paɳɳu paalisi paanʈeedʒ paans paanaʈ paanaɾ paanaɾheʈlains paas paas paaskaʈ paaskaʈpaal 2235 2236 2237 2238 2239 2240 2241 2242 2243 2244 2245 2246 2247 2248 2249 2250 2251 2252 2253 2254 2255 2256 2257 2258 2259 2260 pɑːs ˈpɑːs.pɔːt ˈpæs.ən.dʒər ˈpæs.ɪdʒ biː es siː biː eɪ biː eɪ ˈɒn.ərz ˈpɪk.tʃər ˈpɪk.tʃər ˈpɪk.tʃərz ˈpɪk.tʃərz ˈpɪkˌpɒk.ɪt ˈpɪkˌpɒk.ɪt ˈpɪk.nɪk ˈpɪk.nɪk bɪg - saɪz pɪŋk ˈpɪŋ.pɒŋ ˈbɪz.i ˈbɪz.i ˈbɪz.nɪs ˈbɪz.nɪs bɪd fɪt ˈbɪd.ɪŋ ˈfɪt.ɪŋ to pass passport passenger passage B.Sc. (Bachelor of Science) B.A. (Bachelor of Arts) B.A. Hons.(Bachelor of Arts Honours) picture to take a motion picture pictures (usually cinema) to go to the pictures (cinema) pickpocket to pickpocket picnic to go on a picnic big size pink ping pong busy to be busy business to do business bid fit bidding fitting (tailoring) 194 paas paɳɳu paaspooɾʈ paasaɲcaɾ paaseedʒ pi es si pi ee pi ee aanaɾs pikcaɾ pikcaɾ eʈu pikcaɾs pikcaɾs poo pikpaakkeʈ pikpaakkeʈ aʈi piknik piknik poo piksais piŋk piŋpaaŋ pici pici aaka iɾu picinas picinas paɳɳu piʈ piʈ piʈʈiŋ piʈʈiŋ 2261 2262 2263 2264 2265 2266 2267 2268 2269 2270 2271 2272 2273 2274 2275 2276 2277 2278 2279 2280 2281 2282 2283 2284 2285 2286 bɪd fɪt ˈfeb.ru.ər.i piˈæn.əʊ piˈæn.əʊ piˈæn.əʊ ˈbjuː.gl ˈbjuː.gl ˈbjuː.ti ˈbrʌð.ər ˈpɪr.ə.mɪd braʊn brʌʃ pres presˈtiːd ʒ pres brɑːnt ʃ ˈbrɔdˌgeɪdʒ ˈprɒt.ɪ.stənt brænd ˈbræn.di ˈprɒb.ləm ˈprɒm.ɪ.sər.iˌnəʊt ˈprɒm.ɪs ˈprɒm.ɪs ˈprɑː.dʒekt(n)/prəˈdʒekt(v) to bid to fit february piano to play the piano to play the piano bugle to play the bugle beauty brother pyramid brown brush press prestige to press branch broadgauge protestant brand brandy problem promissory note promise to promise project 195 piʈ paɳɳu piʈ paɳɳu pipɾaʋaɾi pijaanu pijaanu pooʈu pijaanu ʋaaci pijuukiɭ pijuukiɭ ʋaaci pijuuʈʈi piɾataɾ piɾamiʈ piɾaʋun piɾaʂ piɾas piɾasʈiidʒ piɾas paɳɳu piɾaaɲc piɾaaʈkeedʒ piɾaaʈʈasʈaanʈ piɾaaɳʈ piɾaanti piɾaapɭam piɾaamicaɾinooʈʈu piɾaamis piɾaamis paɳɳu piɾaadʒekʈ 2287 2288 2289 2290 2291 2292 2293 2294 2295 2296 2297 2298 2299 2300 2301 2302 2303 2304 2305 2306 2307 2308 2309 2310 2311 2312 ˈpriː.mi.əm ˈpraɪ.vət ˈprɪnt .sɪ.pəl ˈprɪnt .sɪ.pl prɪnt prɪnt ˈprɪn.tɪŋ - pres ˈprɪn.tɪŋ - ˈmæt.ər ˈpraɪ.vət ˈprez.ɪ.dənt bred breɪk breɪk ˈbreɪk.daʊn breɪk praɪs bɪl pɪl bɪl - kəˈlek.tər ˈfɪl.tər ˈfɪl.tər ˈbɪl.dɪŋ ˈpɪl.ə.bɒks ˈpɪl.i.ən - ˈraɪ.dər ˈpɪl.əʊ ˈpɪl.əʊ .keɪs premium private principal principle print to print printing press printed matter private president bread brake to brake breakdown to apply the brakes price bill pill bill collector filter to filter building pillar box (postbox) pillion rider pillow pillowcase 196 piɾimijam piɾiʋeeʈ piɾincipal piɾincipil piɾinʈ piɾinʈ paɳɳu piɾinʈiŋpɾes piɾinʈeʈmaaʈʈaɾ piɾaiʋeeʈ piɾeciʈenʈ piɾeʈ piɾeek piɾeek paɳɳu piɾeekʈaʋunʈ piɾeek pooʈu piɾais pil pil pilkalekʈaɾ pilʈaɾ pilʈaɾ paɳɳu pilʈiŋ pillaɾpaaks pillijanɾaiʈaɾ pilloo pillookees 2313 2314 2315 2316 2317 2318 2319 2320 2321 2322 2323 2324 2325 2326 2327 2328 2329 2330 2331 2332 2333 2334 2335 2336 2337 2338 fɪlm fɪlm plʌg blaʊz ˈblæk.aʊt ˈblɒt.ɪŋ - ˈpeɪ.pər ˈplæt.ɪ.nəm ˈplæt.fɔːm ˈblæd.ər plæn plæn plæn ˈplæs.tɪk bliːtʃ bliː.tʃɪŋ - ˈpaʊ.dər pleɪg bleɪd pleɪt pleɪn ˈplaɪ.wʊd pɪn pɪn pɪn - kəʊd ˈbɪʃ.əp ˈbɪs.kɪt ˈbɪs.kɪt film to film plug blouse black out blotting paper platinum platform bladder plan to plan to make/draw up a plan plastic bleach bleaching powder plague blade plate plain plywood pin to pin pin code bishop (christian) biscuit biscuit 197 pilim pilim paɳɳu piɭak piɭaʋus piɭaak aʋuʈ piɭaaʈʈiŋpeeppaɾ piɭaaʈʈinam piɭaaʈpaaɾam piɭaaʈaɾ piɭaan piɭaan paɳɳu piɭaan pooʈu piɭaasʈik piɭiic piɭiicciŋpaʋuʈaɾ piɭeek piɭeeʈ piɭeeʈ piɭeejn piɭaiʋuʈ pin pin paɳɳu pinkooʈ piʂap piskaʈ piskaʈʈu 2339 2340 2341 2342 2343 2344 2345 2346 2347 2348 2349 2350 2351 2352 2353 2354 2355 2356 2357 2358 2359 2360 2361 2362 2363 2364 ˈbɪs.kɪt ˈpɪs.tən ˈbɪz.i ˈbɪz.nɪs biː es siː biː eɪ biː ˈkɒm.ɜːs biːtʃ biːt ˈbiː.truːt biːm bɪər ˈpɪə.ri.əd ˈbjʊə.rəʊ fiːl biːnz fiːz fiːz bʊk ˈbʊk.ɪŋ - ˈkaʊn.tər bʊk fʊt - bɔːd ˈprɒt.ɪ.stənt ˌprɒp.əˈgæn.də pruːf pruːf biscuit piston (automobile) busy business B.Sc. (Bachelor of Science) B.A. (Bachelor of Arts) B.Com. (Bachelor of Commerce) beach to beat beetroot (vegetable) beam beer period bureau (a closet for clothes) to feel beans fees to pay the fees book booking counter to book foot board protestant propaganda proof to proof (printing) 198 piskeʈ pisʈan pisi pisinas pii es si pii ee pii kaam piic piiʈ paɳɳu piiʈɾuuʈ piim piiɾ piiɾitaʈ piiɾoo piil paɳɳu piins piis piis kaʈʈu puk pukkiŋ kaʋuɳʈaɾ puk paɳɳu puʈpooɾʈu puɾaaʈʈasʈanʈu puɾaappakaanʈaa puɾuuf puɾuuf paɳɳu 2365 2366 2367 2368 2369 2370 2371 2372 2373 2374 2375 2376 2377 2378 2379 2380 2381 2382 2383 2384 2385 2386 2387 2388 2389 2390 to prove provision store (grocery) to proceed procession broker programme progress to be full (to be drunk) pullover to push boots bed bet to take a bet better petition to make a petition to bet to place a bet petromax (brandname for a bright lamp using kerosene as fuel) petrol petrol bunk (filling station) petroleum bedsheet pedal february 199 pruːv prəˈvɪʒ.ən - stɔːr prəʊ ˈsiːd prəˈseʃ.ən ˈbrəʊ.kər ˈprəʊ.græm ˈprəʊ.gres(n)/prəˈgres(v) fʊl ˈpʊlˌəʊ.vər pʊʃ buːt bed bet bet ˈbet.ər pəˈtɪʃ.ən pəˈtɪʃ.ən bet bet ˈpet.rə.mæks ˈpet.rəl ˈpet.rəl pəˈtrəʊ.li.əm bed - ʃiːt ˈped.əl ˈfeb.ru.ər.i puɾuuʋ paɳɳu puɾoʋiʂansʈooɾ puɾosiiʈ paɳɳu puɾooseʂan puɾookkaɾ puɾookiɾam puɾookiɾaam pul aaka iɾu pullooʋae puʂ paɳɳu puuʈs peʈ peʈ peʈ eʈu peʈʈaɾ peʈʈisan peʈʈisan pooʈu peʈ paɳɳu peʈ ʋai peʈɾoomaaks peʈɾool peʈɾoolpaŋk peʈɾoolijam peʈʂiiʈ peʈal pepɾaʋaɾi 2391 2392 2393 2394 2395 2396 2397 2398 2399 2400 2401 2402 2403 2404 2405 2406 2407 2408 2409 2410 2411 2412 2413 2414 2415 2416 peɪnt ˈpeɪn.tər peɪnt bɜːθ bɜːθ - kənˈtrəʊl ˈpɜː.fekt ˈpɜː.mə.nənt ˌpɜː.sənˈæl.ə.ti bel bel belt pəˈvɪl.jən pen bent ʃ ˈpent .səl bent ʃ bend bend ˈpen.dɪŋ ˈpen.djʊ.ləm ˈpent .ʃən ˈpen.əl.ti ˌpen.əˈsɪl.ɪn best bæk ˈbeɪ.kər.i paint painter to paint berth (railways) birth control perfect permanent personality bell to ring the bell belt pavilion pen bench pencil bench bend to bend pending pendulum pension penalty penicilin best back bakery 200 pejinʈ pejinʈʈaɾ pejinʈ paɳɳu peɾt peɾtkaɳʈɾool peɾfekʈ peɾmanenʈ peɾsanuliʈʈi pel pel aʈi pelʈ peʋilijan pen penc pencil penɲc penʈ penʈ paɳɳu penʈiŋ penʈulam penʂan penalʈi penisilin pesʈ peek peekkaɾi 2417 2418 2419 2420 2421 2422 2423 2424 2425 2426 2427 2428 2429 2430 2431 2432 2433 2434 2435 2436 2437 2438 2439 2440 2441 2442 ˈbæk.graʊnd ˈfæk.tər.i bæk ˌbækˈbentʃ ˈbæk.wəd - klɑːs ˈbæk.siːt ˈbæt.ər.i bænd ˈbæn.dɪdʒ ˈpeɪ.pər ˈpeɪ.pə.weɪt ˈpeɪ.pə.weɪt beɪl ˈpeɪ.ʃənt ˈpeɪ.ʃənt peɪst peɪst baɪk baɪnd ˈbaɪn.dɪŋ paɪp ˈpaɪ.pɪŋ ˈbaɪ.bl paɪlz ˈpaɪ.lət ˈpaɪnˌæp.l background factory to back (to reverse) back bench backward class backseat (automobile) battery band bandage paper paperweight paperweight bail patient to be patient paste to paste bike to bind binding pipe piping bible piles (medical) pilot pineapple 201 peekkiɾauɳʈ peekʈaɾi peek paɳɳu peekpeɲc peekʋaaɾʈukiɭaas peeksiiʈ peeʈʈaɾi peeɳʈu peeɳʈeedʒ peeppaɾ peeppaɾʋejiʈ peeppaɾʋeejiʈ peetl peeʂanʈ peeʂanʈ aaka iɾu peesʈ peesʈ paɳɳu paik paiɳʈ paɳɳu paiɳʈiŋ paip paippiŋ paipaɭ pails pailaʈ painaappiɭ 2443 2444 2445 2446 2447 2448 2449 2450 2451 2452 2453 2454 2455 2456 2457 2458 2459 2460 2461 2462 2463 2464 2465 2466 2467 2468 paɪnt ˈfaɪ.nəl bɪˈnɒk.jʊ.ləz ˈfaɪ.nænt s ˈbaɪ.sən pəˈzɪʃ.ən pəˈzɪʃ.ən ˈbəʊ.gəs ˈbəʊ.gi bəʊt ˈfəʊ.təʊ fəˈtɒg.rə.fər ˈfəʊ.təʊ - ˈneg.ə.tɪv ˈfəʊ.tə.grɑːf bɔːr ˈbɔː.rɪŋ bɔːd pɔːt ˈpɔː.tə.bl ˈpɔː.tər pɔːt - trʌst ˈpɔː.tɪ.kəʊ ˈpɔː.tɪ.kəʊ ˈbɔː.dɪŋ - skuːl ˈbɔː.dɪŋ - haʊs bɔːd pint final binoculars finance bison position position bogus bogie (railways) boat photo photographer photonegative to take a photograph bore to be boring board port portable porter port trust portico portico boarding school boarding house board 202 painʈ painal painukulaɾs painuns paisan pociʂan posiʂan pookas pooki pooʈ pooʈʈoo pooʈʈookiɾaapaɾ pooʈoonekaʈiʋ pooʈʈoo piʈi pooɾ pooɾ aʈi pooɾʈ pooɾʈ pooɾʈʈapiɭ pooɾʈʈaɾ pooɾʈʈiɾasʈ pooɾʈikkoo pooɾʈikoo pooɾʈiŋscul pooɾʈiŋhaʋus pooɾʈu 2469 2470 2471 2472 2473 2474 2475 2476 2477 2478 2479 2480 2481 2482 2483 2484 2485 2486 2487 2488 2489 2490 2491 2492 2493 2494 bɔːd ˈfɔː.mən bɔr- wɛl ˈfɔː.dʒər.i ˈpɔː.ʃən bɔrik ˈpaʊ.dər bɔr- pʌmp bəʊl bəʊld bəʊlt bəʊlt bəʊl ˈbəʊ.lər pəˈliːs pəˈliːs - ˈsteɪ.ʃən pəˈliːs pəˈliːs -kənˈtrəʊl fəʊn fəʊn - ˈnʌm.bər fəʊn ˈbəʊ.nəs pəʊst pəʊst - ˈɒf.ɪs ˈpəʊst .kɑːd ˈpəʊ.stɪdʒ pəʊst to put up a board foreman bore well forgery portion boric powder bore pump bowl bold bolt to bolt to bowl (cricket) bowler (cricket) police police station police police control phone phone number to phone bonus post post office postcard postage to post 203 pooɾʈu pooʈu pooɾmen pooɾʋel pooɾdʒaɾi pooɾʂan pooɾikpaʋuʈaɾ pooɾiŋpampu pool poolʈ poolʈ poolʈ paɳɳu pool paɳɳu poolaɾ poolis poolissʈeeʂan poolis pooliskaɳʈɾool poon poonnampaɾ poon paɳɳu poonas poosʈ poosʈ aafiis poosʈkaaɾʈu poosʈʈedʒ poosʈ paɳɳu 2495 2496 2497 2498 2499 2500 2501 2502 2503 2504 2505 2506 2507 2508 2509 2510 2511 2512 2513 2514 2515 2516 2517 2518 2519 2520 ˈpəʊst .bɒks ˈpəʊst .mən ˈpəʊst ˌmɑː.stər ˈpəʊst .mən ˈpəʊ.stər ˈpəʊ.stɪŋ frɒk frɔːd friː frend flæt flɑːsk flaɪt flɔːr flɔːr - ʃəʊ ˈfʌŋk.ʃən fʌnd ˈfɜː.lɒŋ ˈfɜː.nɪ.tʃər fɜːst - eɪd - kɪt fɜːst - eɪd ˈfæm.əl.i fɔːˈmæl.ə.ti ˈfɔː.mjʊ.lə fɔːm ˈfɒr.ən post box postman postmaster postman poster posting (transfer) frock fraud free friend flat flask flight floor floorshow function fund furlong furniture first aid kit first aid family formality formula form foreign 204 poosʈpaaks poosʈman poosʈmaasʈaɾ poosʈmeen poosʈaɾ poosʈiŋ fɾaak fɾaaʈ fɾii fɾeɳʈu fɭaaʈ fɭaask fɭaiʈ fɭooɾ fɭooɾsoo faŋʂan faɳʈu faɾlaaŋ faɾniccaɾ fasʈeejʈkiʈ fasʈeejʈu faamili faaɾmaaliʈi faaɾmulaa faaɾam faaɾin 2521 2522 2523 2524 2525 2526 2527 2528 2529 2530 2531 2532 2533 2534 2535 2536 2537 2538 2539 2540 2541 2542 2543 2544 2545 2546 fan to switch on the fan to be fanciful fashion fiddle to play the fiddle film fee to feel fees to pay the fees foot footboard to be full (to be drunk) fullstop fool to fool to fail failure to become a failure file to file filing filing clerk final focus fæn fæn ˈfænt .sɪ.fəl ˈfæʃ.ən ˈfɪd.l ˈfɪd.l fɪlm fiː fiːl fiːz fiːz fʊt fʊt - bɔːd fʊl fʊl - stɒp fuːl fuːl feɪl ˈfeɪ.ljər ˈfeɪ.ljər faɪl faɪl ˈfaɪ.lɪŋ ˈfaɪ.lɪŋ - klɑːk ˈfaɪ.nəl ˈfəʊ.kəs 205 faan faan pooʈu faansi aaka iɾu faaʂan fiʈil fiʈil ʋaaci filim fii fiil paɳɳu fiis fiis kaʈʈu fuʈ fuʈpooɾʈu ful aaka iɾu fulsʈaap fuul fuul paɳɳu fejil paɳɳu fejiljaɾ fejiljaɾ aaka poo fail fail paɳɳu failiŋ failiŋ klaaɾk fainal faakas 2547 2548 2549 2550 2551 2552 2553 2554 2555 2556 2557 2558 2559 2560 2561 2562 2563 2564 2565 2566 2567 2568 2569 2570 2571 2572 ˈfəʊ.kəs fəʊn fəʊn - kɔːl fəʊn - kɔːl fəʊn fəʊm - ˈkʊʃ.ən fəʊm - ˈrʌb.ər mʌg mʌg məˈtjʊər məˈtjʊə.rɪ.ti ˈmʌt.ən ˈmʌn.i - pɜːs ˈmʌn.i - ˈlen.dər ˈmʌð.ər ˈmʌð.ər - suːˈpɪə.ri.ər mʌf ˈmʌf.lər mʌmps maɪl ˈmɜː.dər ˈmɜː.dər məˈleə.ri.ə ˌmæg.əˈziːn ˌmæg.əˈziːn ˈmɔː.gɪdʒ to focus phone phone call to make a phone call to phone foam cushion foam rubber mug to mug (to study very hard) mature maturity mutton money purse (wallet) money lender mother mother superior (in a convent) muff (fool) muffler (a woolen scarf) mumps mile murder to murder malaria magazine magazine mortgage 206 faakas paɳɳu fooɳ fooɳkaal fooɳkaal pooʈu fooɳ paɳɳu foomkuʂan foomɾappaɾ mak mak paɳɳu maccuuɾ maccuuɾiʈʈi maʈʈan maɳipaɾs maɳilenʈaɾ mataɾ mataɾcupiiɾijaɾ maf mafɭaɾ mamps majil maɾʈaɾ maɾʈaɾ paɳɳu maleeɾijaa maakacain maakasiin maaʈkeedʒ 2573 2574 2575 2576 2577 2578 2579 2580 2581 2582 2583 2584 2585 2586 2587 2588 2589 2590 2591 2592 2593 2594 2595 2596 2597 2598 ˈmɔː.gɪdʒ mætʃ ˈmætʃ.bɒks ˈmæt.ɪ.neɪ ˈmɒd.ən ˈmɒd.ən - ɑːt ˈmɒd.əl ˈmɑː.kɪt ˈmɑː.kɪt - ˈvæl.juː mɑːk mɑːk mɑːks mɑːtʃ ˈmɔː.tjʊ.ri mɑːtʃ mɑːt ˈmɔː.nɪŋ ˈmær.ɪdʒ ˈmæn.ərz ˈmæn.ɪdʒ ˈmæn.ɪ.dʒər ˈmædʒ.ɪk ˈmædʒ.ɪk ˈmædʒ.ɪ.streɪt ˈmɑː.stər ˈmɑː.stər to mortgage match box of matches matinee modern modern art model market market value to mark to mark marks March mortuary to march mart morning marriage manners to manage manager magic to do magic magistrate master to master 207 maaʈkeedʒ paɳɳu maaʈc maaʈcpaaks maaʈʈini maaʈaɾn maaʈaɾn aaɾʈ maaʈal maaɾkkeʈ maaɾkkeʈʋaaljuu maaɾk paɳɳu maaɾk pooʈu maaɾks maaɾc maaɾccujaɾi maaɾc paɳɳu maaɾʈ maaɾniŋ maaɾeedʒ maanaɾs maaneedʒ paɳɳu maaneedʒaɾ maadʒik maadʒik paɳɳu maadʒisʈɾeeʈ maasʈaɾ maasʈaɾ paɳɳu 2599 2600 2601 2602 2603 2604 2605 2606 2607 2608 2609 2610 2611 2612 2613 2614 2615 2616 2617 2618 2619 2620 2621 2622 2623 2624 ˈmɪks.tʃər ˈmɪk.sər N.A. ˈmɪd.waɪf ˈmɪd.waɪf ˌmɪd.l ˈklɑːs ˈmɪd.l .mæn mɪd.l - skuːl ˈmjuː.tʃu.əl mjuːˈziː.əm mɪl mɪlk - bɑːr mɪlk - səˈplaɪ ˈmɪl.jən mɪlz ˈmɪl.ɪ.tri ˈmɪn.ɪt(n)/ maɪˈnjuːt(adj) ˈmɪn.ɪ.bʌs ˈmɪn.ɪˌskɜːt ˈmɪn.ɪ.stər ˈmɪʃ.ən mɪs ˈmɪs.tər mɪˈsteɪk mɪˈsteɪk mɪs mixture (a kind of savory) mixer (a blender) mixy (a blender) midwife midwife middle class middle man middle school mutual museum mill milk bar milk supply million mills military minute mini bus mini skirt minister mission miss mister mistake to make a mistake to miss 208 mikccaɾ miksaɾ miksi miʈojf miʈʋaif miʈilkiɭaas miʈilmeen miʈilskuul mijuuccuʋal mijuucijam mil milkpaaɾ milksapɭai millijan mils miliʈaɾi miniʈ minipas miniskaɾʈ minisʈaɾ miʂan mis misʈaɾ misʈeek misʈeek paɳɳu mis paɳɳu 2625 2626 2627 2628 2629 2630 2631 2632 2633 2634 2635 2636 2637 2638 2639 2640 2641 2642 2643 2644 2645 2646 2647 2648 2649 2650 ˈmɪs.ɪz ˈmiː.tər ˈmiː.tɪŋ miːt ˈmiː.di.əm mɪəlz miːn ˈmiː.nɪŋ mjuːˈnɪs.ɪ.pəl mjuːˌnɪs.ɪˈpæl.ə.ti muːd muːv muːv ˈmuːv.mənt ˈmuː.viz məˈkæn.ɪk məˈkæn.ɪ.kəl ˈmes.ɪdʒ ˈmet.rɪk ˈmed.əl ˈmed.ɪ.kəl ˈmed.ɪ.kəl - ˈkɒl.ɪdʒ ˈmed.ɪ.kəl - ʃɒp ˈmeθ.əd ˈmem.bər ˈmem.əʊ (ˌmem.əˈræn.dəm) Mrs. (also refers to wife) meter (also metre) meeting to meet medium meals to be mean meaning municipal municipality mood move to move about among (as a person) movement movies mechanic mechanical message metric medal medical medical college medical shop (pharmacy) method member memo(randum) (administration) 209 misas miiʈʈaɾ miiʈʈiŋ miiʈ paɳɳu miiʈijam miils miin aaka iɾu miiniŋ municipal municipaaliʈʈi muuʈu muuʋ muuʋ paɳɳu muuʋmenʈ muuʋiis mekkaanik mekkaanikkal meceedʒ meʈɾik meʈal meʈikkal meʈikkalkaaleedʒ meʈikkalʂaap metaʈ mempaɾ memo 2651 2652 2653 2654 2655 2656 2657 2658 2659 2660 2661 2662 2663 2664 2665 2666 2667 2668 2669 2670 2671 2672 2673 2674 2675 2676 meɪl meɪn rəʊd meɪn swɪtʃ ˈmɜː.kjʊ.ri ˈmen.t ʃən məˈdʒɒr.ə.ti ˈmeʒ.ə.mənt məˈʃiːn ˈmes.əz ˈmes.ɪn.dʒər ˈmes.ɪdʒ meɪ ˈmeɪk.ʌp ˈmeɪk.ʌp ˈmeɪk.ʌp - mæn ˈmeɪk.ʌp ˈmeɪ.trən ˈmæd.əm meɪ - deɪ meər ˈmær.ɪdʒ ˈmær.i ˈmeɪ.dʒər ˈmeɪ.dʒər - ˌɒp.ərˈeɪ.ʃən maɪk maɪl mail main road main switch mercury mention majority measurement machine Messrs. messenger message May make up to apply make up makeup man (films) make up matron madam May Day (1st of May) mayor marriage to marry major major operation mike mile 210 mejil mejinɾooʈ mejinsʋiʈc meɾkuɾi menʂan medʒaaɾiʈi meʂaɾmanʈ meʂiin mesaɾs meseɲcaɾ meseedʒ mee meekap meekap pooʈu meekapmeen meekap meeʈɾan meeʈam meeʈee meejaɾ meeɾeedʒ meeɾeedʒ paɳɳu meedʒaɾ meedʒaɾ aappaɾeeʂan maik mail 2677 2678 2679 2680 2681 2682 2683 2684 2685 2686 2687 2688 2689 2690 2691 2692 2693 2694 2695 2696 2697 2698 2699 2700 2701 2702 maɪnd ˈmaɪ.nər ˈmaɪ.nər ˈmaɪ.nəs maɪˈnɒr.ɪ.ti məʊ ˈzeɪ.ɪk məʊ ˈzeɪ.ɪk ˈməʊ.baɪl ˈməʊ.tər ˈməʊ.tər - ˈwaɪn.dɪŋ ˈməʊ.təˌsaɪ.kl ˈməʊ.tə.baɪk məʊld məʊld ˈməʊ.ʃən ˈməʊ.ʃən - ˈpɪk.tʃərz ˈmaʊn.tɪn jʌŋ jʌŋ - men jɑːd ˌjʊə.rəˈpiː.ən ˈjuː.nɪt ˈjuː.ni.ən ˌjuː.nɪˈvɜː.sɪ.ti juːz juːz mind minor minor (a playboy type of person) minus minority mosaic mosaic mobile motor motor-winding (technical) motorcycle motorbike mould to mould motion motion pictures mountain to be young youngmen yard european unit union university to be useful to use 211 mainʈ mainaɾ mainaɾ mainas mainuɾiʈi moceejik mocaik mopail mooʈʈaaɾ mooʈaaɾoojinʈiŋ mooʈʈaaɾcaikkiɭ mooʈʈaaɾpaik moolʈ moolʈ paɳɳu mooʂan mooʂanpikcaɾs maunʈan jaŋ aaka iɾu jaŋmen jaaɾʈ juuɾooppijan juuniʈ juunitan juuniʋaɾciʈi juus aaku juus paɳɳu 2703 2704 2705 2706 2707 2708 2709 2710 2711 2712 2713 2714 2715 2716 2717 2718 2719 2720 2721 2722 2723 2724 2725 2726 2727 2728 ˈjuːs.fəl ˈjuː.sləs rɪˈsiːt rɪˈsiːt rʌf ˈrʌb.ər ˌrʌb.əˈstæmp ˈrʌb.ɪʃ rʌf rʌm reɪl ˈreɪl.weɪ - ˈsteɪ.ʃən ˈraʊ.di raʊnd ˈrʌn.weɪ ˌrʌn.əˈzʌp rʌʃ rʌʃ ræg ˈrɒk.ɪt ræg ræg.ɪŋ rɒŋ ræŋk rɒŋ - ˈnʌm.bər rɒŋ useful useless receipt to give a receipt rough rubber rubber stamp rubbish rough rum rail railway station rowdy round runway runners up rush to rush rag rocket to rag (to tease new students) ragging (the teasing of new students) wrong rank wrong number (telephone) to do someone wrong 212 juusful juusles ɾaciitu ɾaciitu koʈu ɾap ɾappaɾ ɾappaɾsʈaampu ɾappiʂ ɾaf ɾam ɾajil ɾajilʋeesʈeeʂan ɾaʋuʈi ɾaʋuɳʈu ɾanʋee ɾannaɾs ap ɾaʂ ɾaʂ paɳɳu ɾaak ɾaakkeʈ ɾaak paɳɳu ɾaakiŋ ɾaaŋ ɾaaŋk ɾaaŋnampaɾ ɾaaŋ paɳɳu 2729 2730 2731 2732 2733 2734 2735 2736 2737 2738 2739 2740 2741 2742 2743 2744 2745 2746 2747 2748 2749 2750 2751 2752 2753 2754 ˈrɑːf.tər ˈræf.l ˈræl.i ræʃ ˈræʃ.li ˈrɑː.skəl ˌrek.riˈeɪ.ʃən ˌrek.riˈeɪ.ʃən - klʌb rɪˈkruːt rɪˈkruːt rɪˈkruːt.mənt ˈrɪk.ʃɔː rɪˈhɜːs rɪˈhɜːs rɪˈhɜː.səl rɪˈkɔː.dɪŋ ˈrek.ɔːd(n)/rɪˈkɔːd(v) rɪŋ rɪŋ rɪŋ rɪŋ - ˈmɑː.stər rɪˈsep.ʃən rɪˈsep.ʃən rɪˈsep.ʃən.ɪst rɪˈzɜːv ˌrez.əˈveɪ.ʃən rafter raffle rally rash rashly rascal recreation recreation club recruit to recruit recruitment rickshaw rehearse to rehearse rehearsal recording record ring to give a ring (to phone) to ring (to phone) ring master (as in a circus) reception to give a reception receptionist to reserve reservation 213 ɾaafʈaɾ ɾaafiɭ ɾaali ɾaaʂ ɾaaʂ aaka ɾaaskal ɾikɾijeeʂan ɾikɾijeeʂan kiɭap ɾikɾuuʈ ɾikɾuuʈ paɳɳu ɾikɾuuʈmenʈ ɾikʂaa ɾikaɾs ɾikaɾs paɳɳu ɾikaɾsal ɾikaaɾʈiŋ ɾikaaɾʈu ɾiŋ ɾiŋ koʈu ɾiŋ paɳɳu ɾiŋmaasʈaɾ ɾicapʂan ɾicapʂan koʈu ɾicapʂanisʈ ɾicaɾʋ paɳɳu ɾicaɾʋeeʂan 2755 2756 2757 2758 2759 2760 2761 2762 2763 2764 2765 2766 2767 2768 2769 2770 2771 2772 2773 2774 2775 2776 2777 2778 2779 2780 rɪˈtrent ʃ.mənt rɪˈtrent ʃ.mənt rɪˈtaɪər rɪˈtaɪər rɪˈtɜː rɪˈtɜː ˈriː.teɪl -praɪs ˈrɪb.ən rɪˈpeər rɪˈpeər ˈriː.beɪt ˈriː.beɪt rɪˈpɔːt rɪˈfreʃ.ɪŋ rɪˈfɔːm rɪˈfɔːm rɪˈfɔrməˌtɔri- skul rɪˈmɑːk rɪˈmɑːk rɪˈmaɪnd rɪəl - ˈvæl.juː rɪˈlæks ˈriː.læps(n)/rɪˈlæps(v) ˈriː.læps rɪˈliːf rɪˈliːs retrenchment to retrench retire to retire return to return retail price ribbon repair to repair rebate to give a rebate report refreshing reform to reform reformatory school remark to remark to remind real value to relax relapse to have a relapse relief release 214 ɾiʈɾeɲcmenʈ ɾiʈɾeɲcmenʈ paɳɳu ɾiʈajaɾ ɾiʈajaɾ paɳɳu ɾiʈaɾn ɾiʈaɾn paɳɳu ɾiʈeejl pɾais ɾippan ɾippeeɾ ɾippeeɾ paɳɳu ɾipeeʈ ɾipeeʈ koʈu ɾipooɾʈ ɾifɾeʂiŋ ɾifaaɾm ɾifaaɾm paɳɳu ɾifaaɾmeeʈʈaɾiskuul ɾimaaɾk ɾimaaɾk paɳɳu ɾimainʈ paɳɳu ɾijalʋeelju ɾilaaks paɳɳu ɾilaaps ɾilaaps aaku ɾiliif ɾiliis 2781 2782 2783 2784 2785 2786 2787 2788 2789 2790 2791 2792 2793 2794 2795 2796 2797 2798 2799 2800 2801 2802 2803 2804 2805 2806 rɪˈliːs ˈriː.leɪ(n)/ˌrɪˈleɪ(v) ˈrel.ə.tɪv ˌrɪˈleɪ rɪˈlaɪ rɪˈlaɪə.bl ˈrɪv.ɪt rɪˈvɜːs rɪˈvɜːs rɪˈvɒl.vər rɪˈvaɪz rɪˈnjuː rɪˈnjuː.əl - fɔːm ˈredʒ.ɪ.stər ˈredʒ.ɪ.stər rɪsk rɪˈsep.ʃən rɪˈsep.ʃən.ɪst rɪˈzem.bl rɪˈzɜːv ˌrez.əˈveɪ.ʃən ˌrez.əˈveɪ.ʃən rɪˈsiːv rɪˈsiː.vər rɪˈzaɪn rɪˈhɜː.səl to be released relay relative to relay to rely reliable rivet (technical) reverse to reverse revolver to revise to renew renewal form register to register risk reception receptionist to resemble to reserve reservation to make a reservation to receive receiver (telephone) to resign rehearsal 215 ɾiliis aaku ɾilee ɾileeʈiʋ ɾilee paɳɳu ɾilai paɳɳu ɾilaijapiɭ ɾiʋaʈ ɾiʋaɾs ɾiʋaɾs paɳɳu ɾiʋaalʋaɾ ɾiʋais paɳɳu ɾinju paɳɳu ɾinujalfaaɾm ɾidʒisʈaɾ ɾidʒisʈaɾ paɳɳu ɾisk ɾisapʂan ɾisapʂanisʈ ɾisampiɭ paɳɳu ɾisaɾʋ paɳɳu ɾisaɾʋeeʂan ɾisaɾʋeeʂan paɳɳu ɾisiiʋ paɳɳu ɾisiiʋaɾ ɾisain paɳɳu ɾihaɾsal 2807 2808 2809 2810 2811 2812 2813 2814 2815 2816 2817 2818 2819 2820 2821 2822 2823 2824 2825 2826 2827 2828 2829 2830 2831 2832 ˌriː.kənˈdɪʃ.ən ˌriː.kənˈdɪʃ.ən ˌriː.kənˈdɪʃ.ən.ɪŋ riːtʃ ˌriːˈtred ˈriː.dər ˈriː.teɪk ˈriː.teɪl - seɪl ˈriː.teɪl -praɪs ˈriː.fʌnd(n)/ˌrɪˈfʌnd(v) ˌrɪˈfʌnd rɪəl ˈriː.sənt ˈriː.zən.ə.bl ˌrɪ.səʊl ruːˈpiː ruːt ruːˈtiːn ruːm ruːl ruːl ˈruː.lər ˈruː.lɪŋ - ˈpɑː.ti ˌrek.əˈmend ˌrek.əˈmend ˈrek.ɔːd(n)/rɪˈkɔːd(v) recondition (automobile) to recondition (automobile) reconditioning (automobile) to reach to retread (as a tyre) reader (university) retake (films) retail sales retail price refund to refund reel recent reasonable to resole rupee route routine room rule to make a rule ruler ruling (political) party recommend to recommend record 216 ɾiikaɳʈiʂan ɾiikaɳʈiʂan paɳɳu ɾiikaɳʈiʂaniŋ ɾiic paɳɳu ɾiiʈɾeʈ paɳɳu ɾiiʈaɾ ɾiiʈeek ɾiiʈeejlceels ɾiiʈeejlpɾais ɾiifaɳʈ ɾiifaɳʈ paɳɳu ɾiil ɾiisanʈ ɾiisanapiɭ ɾiisool paɳɳu ɾuppi ɾuuʈ ɾuuʈʈiin ɾuum ɾuul ɾuul pooʈu ɾuulaɾ ɾuuliŋ paaɾʈʈi ɾekkameɳʈ ɾekkameɳʈ paɳɳu ɾekkaaɾʈ 2833 2834 2835 2836 2837 2838 2839 2840 2841 2842 2843 2844 2845 2846 2847 2848 2849 2850 2851 2852 2853 2854 2855 2856 2857 2858 ˈrek.ɔːd - ˈɒf.ɪs rɪˈkɔːd rɪˈkɔː.dɪŋ ˌrek.riˈeɪ.ʃən rɪˈkruːt ˈrek.ləs ˈrek.ɔːd - ˈpleɪ.ər ˈreg.jʊ.lər red ˌredˈlaɪtˌdɪs.trɪkt ˈred.i ˈred.i ˌred.iˈmeɪd ˌrep.rɪˈzent rɪ-fri rɪˈfrɪdʒ.ər.eɪ.tər rɪˈfreʃ.mənt rɪˈfɜr ˈriː.mɪt(n)/rɪˈmɪt(v) reɪd reɪd reɪl ˈreɪl.weɪ ˈreɪŋ.kəʊt ˈreɪn.bəʊ ˈrev.ən.juː record office to record recording recreation recruit reckless record player regular red redlight area (licensed prostitution) ready to get (things) ready readymade represent refree refrigerator refreshment to refer remit raid to raid rail railway raincoat rainbow revenue 217 ɾekkaaɾʈ aafiis ɾekkaaɾʈ paɳɳu ɾekkaaɾʈiŋ ɾekɾijeeʂan ɾekɾuuʈ ɾekles ɾekaaɾʈpɭeejaɾ ɾekulaɾ ɾeʈ ɾeʈ laiʈ eeɾijaa ɾeʈi ɾeʈi paɳɳu ɾeʈimeeʈ ɾepɾacenʈ ɾepɾi ɾefɾidʒiɾeeʈʈaɾ ɾefɾeʂmanʈ ɾefaɾ paɳɳu ɾemiʈ ɾejʈu ɾejʈu paɳɳu ɾejil ɾejilʋee ɾejinkooʈ ɾejinpoo ɾeʋanjuu 2859 2860 2861 2862 2863 2864 2865 2866 2867 2868 2869 2870 2871 2872 2873 2874 2875 2876 2877 2878 2879 2880 2881 2882 2883 2884 ˈrev.ən.juː - stæmp rɪˈvjuː rɪˈvjuː rent ˈredʒ.ɪ.stər ˈredʒ.ɪ.stər ˌredʒ.ɪˈstrɑːr rest rest rest ˈrest.haʊs ˈres.trɒnt rɪˈspekt rɪˈspekt ˌrez.ɪˈden.t ʃəl - ˈeə.ri.ə reɪk reɪndʒ ˈreɪn.dʒər reɪt reɪt ˈreɪ.di.əm ˈreɪ.di.əm - ˈtriːt.mənt ˈreɪ.di.əʊ ˈreɪ.di.əʊ.græm reɪp reɪd revenue stamp review to review rent register to register registrar (university) rest to take a rest to rest rest house restaurant respect to give respect residential area rake (debauched man) range ranger rate to bargain and agree on the cost of a service radium radium treatment radio radiogram rape raid 218 ɾeʋanjuusʈaampu ɾeʋijuu ɾeʋijuu paɳɳu ɾenʈ ɾedʒisʈaɾ ɾedʒisʈaɾ paɳɳu ɾedʒisʈɾaaɾ ɾesʈ ɾesʈ eʈu ɾesʈ paɳɳu ɾesʈhaus ɾesʈaaɾaɳʈ ɾespekʈ ɾespekʈ koʈu ɾesiʈenʂajal eeɾijaa ɾeek ɾeeɲc ɾeeɲcaɾ ɾeeʈ ɾeeʈ peecu ɾeeʈijam ɾeeʈijam ʈɾiiʈmenʈ ɾeeʈijoo ɾeeʈijookɾaam ɾeep ɾeejʈu 2885 2886 2887 2888 2889 2890 2891 2892 2893 2894 2895 2896 2897 2898 2899 2900 2901 2902 2903 2904 2905 2906 2907 2908 2909 2910 reɪd reɪz ˈræʃ.ən ˈræʃ.ən - kɑːd reɪs ˈreɪs.klʌb ˈreɪs.kɔːs raɪt ˈraɪ.tər ˈraɪ.dər ˈraɪ.fl raɪs reɪz raɪs - mɪl rəʊg rəʊd - ˈrəʊ.lər rəʊd rəʊl - kɔːl ˈrəʊ.lər rəʊst rəʊst ˈrəʊ.zər.i ˈrəʊ.zər.i ˈraʊ.di lʌk ˈlʌk.i to raid to raise ration ration card race race club race course right writer rider rifle rice raise rice mill rogue road roller road roll call roller roast to roast rosary to say the rosary rowdy luck lucky 219 ɾeejʈu paɳɳu ɾeejs paɳɳu ɾeeʂan ɾeeʂankaaɾʈu ɾees ɾeeskɭap ɾeeskooɾs ɾaiʈ ɾaiʈʈaɾ ɾaiʈaɾ ɾaifiɭ ɾais ɾais ɾaismil ɾook ɾooʈɾoolaɾ ɾooʈu ɾoolkaal ɾoolaɾ ɾoosʈ ɾoosʈ paɳɳu ɾoosaɾi ɾoosaɾi collu ɾauʈi lak lakki 2911 2912 2913 2914 2915 2916 2917 2918 2919 2920 2921 2922 2923 2924 2925 2926 2927 2928 2929 2930 2931 2932 2933 2934 2935 2936 ˈlʌk.i - ˈnʌm.bər ˈlʌg.ɪdʒ ˈlʌk.ʃər.i ˈlʌk.ʃər.i - bʌs ˈlʌg.ɪdʒ lʌnt ʃ lʌnt ʃ - breɪk ləˈbɒr.ə.tri lʌv lʌv - ˈlet.ər ˈlʌv.ər lʌv - ˈstɔː.ri ˈlʌv.ər ˈlɒk.ʌp ˈlɒk.ʌp ˈlɒk.aʊt ˈlɒk.ər lɔː - ˈkɒl.ɪdʒ lɒt ˈlɒt.ər.i ˈlɒt.ər.i lɒdʒ ˈlɒdʒ.ɪŋ ˈlɔːn.dri ˈlæn.tən ləˈbɒr.ə.tri lucky number luggage luxury luxury bus luggage lunch lunch break laboratory love love letter lover love story lover lockup (jail) to lock up lock out (as a factory lock out) locker law college lot lottery to be in dire need (need to strike lottery) lodge (hotel) lodging laundry lantern laboratory 220 lakkinampaɾ lakkeedʒ laksaɾi laksaɾipas lakeedʒ laɲc laɲcpɾeek lapaaɾaʈaɾi laʋ laʋleʈʈaɾ laʋʋaɾ laʋsʈooɾi laʋaɾ laakap laakap paɳɳu laakaʋuʈ laakkaɾ laakaaleedʒ laaʈ laaʈʈaɾi laaʈɾi aʈi laaʈdʒ laaʈdʒiŋ laaɳʈaɾi laantaɾ laapaɾaʈaɾi 2937 2938 2939 2940 2941 2942 2943 2944 2945 2946 2947 2948 2949 2950 2951 2952 2953 2954 2955 2956 2957 2958 2959 2960 2961 2962 ˈlɔɪ.ər lɔːd lɑːdʒ ˈlɒr.i ˈlɒr.i ˈlæv.ə.tri lɔːn lɔːn - ˈten.ɪs ˈlɒdʒ.ɪk lɒs lɒs lɑːst ˈlɪgnaɪt ˈliː.tər ˈlɪp.stɪk lɪft lɪft - ˈɒp.ər.eɪ.tər lɪft lɪft - mæn ˈlɪm.ɪ.tɪd ˈlɪl.i lɪst lɪst liːk liːg ˈliː.gəl lawyer lord large lorry to drive a lorry lavatory lawn lawn tennis logic loss to have a loss last lignite litre lipstick lift lift operator to lift liftman limited lily list to make a list leak league legal 221 laajaɾ laaɾʈ laaɾdʒ laaɾi laaɾi ooʈʈu laaʋaʈaɾi laan laanʈennis laadʒik laas laas aaku laasʈ liknaiʈ liʈʈaɾ lipsʈik lifʈ lifʈ aapaɾeeʈaɾ lifʈ paɳɳu lifʈmeen limiʈʈeʈ lilli lisʈ lisʈ pooʈu liik liik liikal 2963 2964 2965 2966 2967 2968 2969 2970 2971 2972 2973 2974 2975 2976 2977 2978 2979 2980 2981 2982 2983 2984 2985 2986 2987 2988 liːd ˈliː.dər ˈliː.dɪŋ liːv liːv liːv liːv ˈliː.vər liːv liːn ˈliː.ni.ənt liːs luːp luːm luːs luːs ˈlet.ər ˈlet.ər ˈlet.ər ˈledʒ.ər ˈleð.ər lefˈten.ənt ˈlep.ər ˈlep.rə.si lefˈten.ənt ˈlev.əl to lead leader leading leave to take leave to give leave to apply for leave lever leave to be lean lenient lease loop (used in birth control) loom loose (a crackbrained or silly person) to loose letter to write a letter to drop (write) a letter to someone ledger leather lieutenant leper leprosy lieutenant level 222 liiʈ paɳɳu liiʈaɾ liiʈiŋ liiʋ liiʋ eʈu liiʋ koʈu liiʋ pooʈu liiʋaɾ liiʋu liin aaka iɾu liinijanʈ liis luup luum luus luus paɳɳu leʈʈaɾ leʈʈaɾ e/utu leʈʈaɾ pooʈu leʈdʒaɾ letaɾ lepʈinenʈ leppaɾ lepɾasi lefʈinenʈ leʋal 2989 2990 2991 2992 2993 2994 2995 2996 2997 2998 2999 3000 3001 3002 3003 3004 3005 3006 3007 3008 3009 3010 3011 3012 3013 3014 ˈlev.əl - ˈkrɒs.ɪŋ ˈlev.əl ˈlev.i lend lent lend ˈleɪ.aʊt ˈlei.ɒf ˈlei.ɒf leɪt ˈleɪ.diz ˈleɪ.dizˌklʌb ˈleɪ.bər ˈleɪ.bər - wɔːd ˈleɪ.bəl ˈleɪ.ər leɪs ˈlaɪ.sənt s laɪt ˈlaɪ.tər laɪt ˈlaɪt.weɪt ˈlaɪt.haʊs laɪˈbreə.ri.ən laɪf laɪm level crossing to level levy lend Lent (christian) to lend layout (printing and advertising) layoff to layoff late ladies ladies club labour labour ward label layer lace license light lighter to switch on the light light weight (racing) lighthouse librarian life lime 223 leʋalkɾaaciŋ leʋal paɳɳu leʋi lenʈ lenʈ lenʈ paɳɳu lee aʋuʈ lee aap lee app paɳɳu leeʈ leeʈiis leeʈiiskɭap leepaɾ leepaɾʋaaɾʈu leepiɭ leejaɾ lees laicens laiʈ laiʈʈaɾ laiʈ pooʈu laiʈʋejʈ laiʈhaʋus laipɾeeɾijan laif laim 3015 3016 3017 3018 3019 3020 3021 3022 3023 3024 3025 3026 3027 3028 3029 3030 3031 3032 3033 3034 3035 3036 3037 3038 3039 3040 laɪm - dʒuːs laɪn ˈlaɪnz.mən ˈlaɪ.nɪŋ ləˈkæl.ə.ti ˈləʊ.kəʊ - ʃed ˈləʊ.kəl ləʊd ləʊd ˈləʊ.ər - greɪd ˈləʊ.ər - greɪd ləʊn ləʊn ləʊn ˈləʊ.ʃən laʊndʒ ˈwʌn.də.fəl wʌnt s mɔːr waɪər waɪər ˌvaɪəˈlɪn ˌvaɪəˈlɪn ˈwɜː.kər ˈwɜː.kɪŋ - aʊərz ˈwɜːk.mən.ʃɪp ˈwɜːk.ʃɒp lime juice line linesman lining (tailoring) locality loco(motive) shed (railways) local load to load lowergrade lowergrade loan to take a loan to give a loan lotion lounge wonderful once more wire to wire (to send a telegram) violin to play the violin worker working hours workmanship workshop 224 laimdʒus lain lainsmeen lainiŋ lokaaliʈʈi lookkooseʈ lookal looʈ looʈ paɳɳu loojaɾkɾeeʈ loojaɾkiɾeeʈu loon loon eʈu loon koʈu looʂan lauɲc ʋaɳʈaɾful ʋaɳsmooɾ ʋajaɾ ʋajaɾ paɳɳu ʋajalin ʋajalin pooʈu ʋaɾkkaɾ ʋaɾkkiŋ aʋaɾs ʋaɾkmanʂip ʋaɾkʂaap 3041 3042 3043 3044 3045 3046 3047 3048 3049 3050 3051 3052 3053 3054 3055 3056 3057 3058 3059 3060 3061 3062 3063 3064 3065 3066 ˈvʌl.gəl.i ˈvʌl.kə.naɪz ˈvaʊ.tʃər vaʊtʃ wɔːk ˈwɔː.kɪŋ ˈwɔː.kɪŋ ˈwɔː.kɪŋ - stɪk wɔːk ˈwæg.ən wɒtʃ wɒtʃ ˈwɒtʃ.mən ˈwɔː.tər ˈwɔː.tər - kæn ˈwɔː.tər - ˈkuː.lər ˈwɔː.tər - ˈbɒt.l vɔɪs vɔɪl wɔːr wɔːd ˈwɔː.dən wɔːd wɔːd - bɔɪ ˈwɔː.taɪm wɔːn vulgarly to vulcanise voucher to vouch for walk walking to go for a walk walking stick to walk wagon (railways) watch to watch watchman water watercan water cooler water bottle voice voile (a type of cloth) war ward warden ward ward boy war time warn 225 ʋalkaɾ aaka ʋalkanais paɳɳu ʋaʋuccaɾ ʋaʋuc paɳɳu ʋaak ʋaakkiŋ ʋaakkiŋ poo ʋaakkiŋsʈik ʋaak paɳɳu ʋaakan ʋaaʈc ʋaaʈc paɳɳu ʋaaʈcmeen ʋaaʈʈaɾ ʋaaʈʈaɾkeen ʋaaʈʈaɾkuulaɾ ʋaaʈʈaɾpaaʈʈil ʋaajs ʋaajil ʋaaɾ ʋaaɾʈ ʋaaɾʈan ʋaaɾʈu ʋaaɾʈupaaj ʋaaɾʈaim ʋaaɾɳ 3067 3068 3069 3070 3071 3072 3073 3074 3075 3076 3077 3078 3079 3080 3081 3082 3083 3084 3085 3086 3087 3088 3089 3090 3091 3092 wɔːn ˈwɔː.nɪŋ ˈwɔː.nɪŋ ˈvɑː.nɪʃ ˈwɒr.ənt ˈwɔːl.nʌt ˈvæl.juː ˈvɒl.juːm ˌvɒl.ənˈtɪər ˈvɒl.i.bɔːl væn wɒʃ ˈwɒʃ.aʊt wɒʃ ˈwɒʃˌbeɪ.sən ˈwɒʃ.ə.bl ˈwɒʃ.ər ˈwɒʃ.ɪŋ - məˈʃiːn ˈwɒʃ.ɪŋ - ˈsəʊ.də vɑːz vɑːst ˈvæs.ə.liːn viː piː piː wɪg ˈwɪk.ɪt ˈwɪk.ɪt to warn warning to give a warning varnish warrant (military) walnut value volume volunteer volleyball van wash wash-out (complete failure, useless) to wash wash basin washable washer washing machine washing soda (a bleaching agent to whiten clothes) vase vast vaseline V.P.P. (value payable by post) wig wicket (cricket) wicket (cricket) 226 ʋaaɾɳ paɳɳu ʋaaɾniŋ ʋaaɾniŋ koʈu ʋaaɾniʂ ʋaaɾanʈ ʋaalnaʈ ʋaalju ʋaaljuum ʋaalaɳʈijaɾ ʋaalipaal ʋaan ʋaaʂ ʋaaʂ aʋuʈ ʋaaʂ paɳɳu ʋaaʂpeecan ʋaaʂapiɭ ʋaaʂaɾ ʋaaʂiŋmeʂiin ʋaaʂiŋsooʈaa ʋaas ʋaasʈ ʋaasaliin ʋi.pi.pi ʋik ʋikkaʈ ʋikkeʈ 3093 3094 3095 3096 3097 3098 3099 3100 3101 3102 3103 3104 3105 3106 3107 3108 3109 3110 3111 3112 3113 3114 3115 3116 3117 3118 ˈwɪk.ɪt ˈwɪk.ɪt - ˈkiː.pər wɪŋ wɪŋ - kəˈmɑːn.dər ˈviː.zə ˈvɪz.ɪt ˈvɪz.ɪ.tər ˈvɪz.ɪt.ɪŋ - kɑːd ˈvɪz.ɪt ˈwɪs.l ˈwɪs.l ˈwɪs.l wɪt wɪt ˈvɪt.ə.mɪn wɪtθ wɪðˈdrɔː wɪðˈdrɔː wɪðˈdrɔː.əl - fɔːm N.A. ˈvɪl.ɪdʒ wɪn ˈwɪn.dəʊ ˈwɪn.dəʊ - ˈdres.ɪŋ ˈwɪn.dəʊˌʃɒp.ɪŋ wɪn to take a wicket (cricket) wicket-keeper (cricket) wing wing commander (military) visa visit visitor visiting card to visit whistle to whistle to whistle wit to crack a joke (to hit wit) vitamin width withdraw to withdraw withdrawal form villan (a male) village win window window dressing window-shopping to win 227 ʋikkeʈ eʈu ʋikkeʈkiippaɾ ʋiŋ ʋiŋkamaaɳʈaɾ ʋicaa ʋiciʈ ʋiciʈʈaɾ ʋiciʈʈiŋkaaɾʈu ʋiciʈ paɳɳu ʋicil ʋicil aʈi ʋicil paɳɳu ʋiʈ ʋiʈ aʈi ʋiʈʈamin ʋit ʋitʈɾaa ʋitʈɾaa paɳɳu ʋitʈɾaajalfaaɾam ʋillan ʋilledʒ ʋin ʋinʈoo ʋinʈooʈiɾesciŋ ʋinʈooʂaappiŋ ʋin paɳɳu 3119 3120 3121 3122 3123 3124 3125 3126 3127 3128 3129 3130 3131 3132 3133 3134 3135 3136 3137 3138 3139 3140 3141 3142 3143 3144 ˈwɪn.ər ˈvɪn.ɪ.gər ˈwɪs.ki ˈvɪz.ɪt wiːk wiːk ˈwiː.kli wiːt ˈviː.təʊ ˈviː.təʊ wiːl ˈwiːl.tʃeər vəˈkeɪt veɪˈkeɪ.ʃən ˈvet.ə r.ɪ.nər.i - ˈdɒk.tər weɪt ˈweɪ.tɪŋ - ruːm vəˈræn.də ˈver.i - gʊd vəˈraɪə.ti wel ˈwel.kəm ˈwel.kəm ˈwel.dər ˈwel.feər ˈvel.vɪt winner vinegar whisky visit weak to be weak weekly wheat veto to veto wheel wheel chair to vacate vacation veterinary doctor weight waiting room verandah very good variety well welcome to welcome welder (a trade) welfare velvet (a type of cloth) 228 ʋinnaɾ ʋiniikaɾ ʋiski ʋisiʈ ʋiik ʋiik aaka iɾu ʋiikli ʋiiʈ ʋiiʈoo ʋiiʈoo paɳɳu ʋiil ʋiilceeɾ ʋekkeeʈ paɳɳu ʋekkeeʂan ʋeʈneɾiʈaakʈaɾ ʋejiʈ ʋejiʈiŋɾuum ʋeɾaantaa ʋeɾikuʈ ʋeɾaiʈʈi ʋel ʋelkam ʋelkam paɳɳu ʋelʈaɾ ʋelfeeɾ ʋelʋaʈ 3145 3146 3147 3148 3149 3150 3151 3152 3153 3154 3155 3156 3157 3158 3159 3160 3161 3162 3163 3164 3165 3166 3167 3168 3169 3170 vəˈnɪl.ə ˈvedʒ.tə.bl ˌvedʒ.ɪˈteə.ri.ən vɪˈhɪk.jʊ.lər - ˈtræf.ɪk ˌweɪˈaʊt weɪ - ɪn veɪg ˈveɪ.gli ˈveɪ.kənt ˈveɪ.kənt ˈveɪ.kənt .si ˈveɪ.kənt .si weɪt ˈweɪ.tər ˈweɪ.tɪŋ - ruːm ˈweɪ.tɪŋ - lɪst weɪt ˈweɪtˌlɪf.tər weɪ.ɪŋ - məˈʃiːn væn weɪst weɪst - əv/ɒv - taɪm ˈweɪstˌpeɪpər ˈvɪt.ə.mɪn( )/ ˈvaɪ.t ə.mɪn(US) waɪpər vaɪs vanilla vegetable vegetarian vehicular traffic way out way in vague vaguely vacant to be vacant vacancy vacancy wait waiter waiting room waiting list to wait weight lifter weighing machine van waste waste of time wastepaper vitamin wiper (automobile) vice 229 ʋenilaa ʋedʒiʈʈapiɭ ʋedʒiʈeeɾijan ʋehijkkulaɾʈɾaafik ʋee aʋuʈ ʋee in ʋeek ʋeek aaka ʋeekaɳʈ ʋeekaɳʈ aaka iɾu ʋeekaɳsi ʋeekansi ʋeejʈ ʋeejʈʈaɾ ʋeejʈʈiŋɾuum ʋeejʈʈiŋlisʈ ʋeejʈ paɳɳu ʋeejʈlifʈaɾ ʋeejiŋmeʂin ʋeen ʋeesʈ ʋeesʈ aap ʈaim ʋeesʈpeeppaɾ ʋaiʈʈamin ʋaippaɾ ʋais 3171 3172 3173 3174 3175 3176 3177 3178 3179 3180 3181 3182 3183 3184 3185 3186 3187 3188 3189 3190 3191 3192 3193 3194 3195 3196 vaɪs-ˈtʃɑːnt .səl.ər wɜːk wɜːk ˈwʌr.i ˈwʌr.i əˈrɪdʒ.ɪ.nəl ˈvəʊ.kəl vəʊt vəʊt vəʊt vəʊt ˈəʊ.nər həʊld - ɒn ˈvɒl.tɪdʒ ˈəʊ.və.taɪm ˈəʊ.və.hɔːl ˈvaʊ.tʃər vaʊtʃ dʒʌg ˈdʒʌg.lər ˈdʒʌŋ.gl ˈdʒʌŋk.ʃən dʒʌdʒ ˈdʒʌdʒ.mənt dʒʌmp ˈdʒʌm.pər vice-chancellor (university) work to work worry to worry original vocal vote vote to vote to cast a vote owner hold on (used to call a vehicle to a halt) voltage overtime overhaul (technical) voucher to vouch for jug juggler jungle junction (railways) judge judgment jump jumper 230 ʋaiscaancalaɾ ʋoɾk ʋoɾk paɳɳu ʋoɾi ʋoɾi paɳɳu ʋoɾidʒinal ʋookkal ʋooʈ ʋooʈʈu ʋooʈ paɳɳu ʋooʈ pooʈu ʋooɳaɾ ʋoolʈan ʋoolʈeedʒ ʋooʋaɾʈaim ʋooʋaɾaajil ʋauccaɾ ʋauc paɳɳu dʒak dʒaklaɾ dʒaŋkiɭ dʒaŋʂan dʒaʈdʒ dʒaʈdʒmeɳʈ dʒamp dʒampaɾ 3197 3198 3199 3200 3201 3202 3203 3204 3205 3206 3207 3208 3209 3210 3211 3212 3213 3214 3215 3216 3217 3218 3219 3220 3221 3222 ˈdʒɜː.nəl ˈdʒɜː.nə.lɪst ˈdʒɜː.ni ˈdʒæn.jʊə .ri ˈdʒʌs.tɪs ˈdʒɒk.i ˈdʒæk.ɪt ˈdʒæk.pɒt dʒɒb dʒæm ˈdʒɔɪ.raɪd dʒɔɪn dʒɔɪnt dʒɔɪnt dʒɔɪn dʒɑːr dʒɔːˈdʒet ˈdʒɒl.i ˈdʒɒl.i ˈdʒæv.lɪn ˈdʒɔːn.dɪs dʒæz ˈdʒɪp.si dʒɪmˈkɑː.nə dʒɪn dʒiːp journal journalist journey January justice jockey jacket (a woman's blouse) jackpot (racing) job jam joy-ride join joint to make a joint (technical) to join jar georgette (a type of cloth) jolly to be jolly javelin jaundice jazz gipsy gymkhana (sports club) gin jeep 231 dʒaɾnal dʒaɾnalisʈ dʒaɾni dʒanaʋaɾi dʒasʈis dʒaakki dʒaakkeʈ dʒaakpaaʈ dʒaap dʒaam dʒaajɾaiʈ dʒaajin dʒaajinʈ dʒaajinʈ pooʈu dʒaajin paɳɳu dʒaaɾ dʒaaɾdʒeʈ dʒaali dʒaali aaka iɾu dʒaaʋalin dʒaanʈis dʒaas dʒipci dʒimkaanu dʒin dʒiip 3223 3224 3225 3226 3227 3228 3229 3230 3231 3232 3233 3234 3235 3236 3237 3238 3239 3240 3241 3242 3243 3244 3245 3246 3247 3248 ˈzɪə.rəʊ dʒiːnz dʒiːnz ˈdʒiː.ni.əs ˈdʒuːk.bɒks ˈdʒuː.bɪ.liː ˈdʒʊə.ri dʒʊˈlaɪ dʒuːn ˈdʒuː.ni.ər ˈdʒudʒub dʒuːs dʒet dʒeɪl ˈdʒeɪ.lər ˈdʒɜː.kɪn dʒɜːk dʒɜːmz ˈdʒɜː.mən ˈdʒɜː.zi ˈdʒel.i ˈdʒen.tl .mən ˈdʒen.ər.əl ˈdʒen.ər.əl - ˈmæn.ɪ.dʒər ˈdʒen.ər.əl - ˈnɒl.ɪdʒ ˈdʒen.ə.reɪ.tər zero jeans to wear jeans genius juke box jubilee jury July June junior jujubes (sweets) juice jet jail jailer jerkin to jerk germs german jersey jelly gentlemen general general manager general knowledge generator 232 dʒiiɾoo dʒiins dʒiins pooʈu dʒiinijas dʒukpaaks dʒupili dʒuɾi dʒulai dʒun dʒunijaɾ dʒudʒups dʒus dʒeʈ dʒejil dʒejilaɾ dʒeɾkkin dʒek paɳɳu dʒeɾms dʒeɾman dʒeɾsi dʒelli dʒenʈilmen dʒenaɾal dʒenaɾalmaaneedʒaɾ dʒenaɾalnuleeʈdʒ dʒenaɾeeʈʈaɾ 3249 3250 3251 3252 3253 3254 3255 3256 3257 3258 3259 3260 3261 3262 3263 3264 3265 3266 3267 3268 3269 3270 3271 3272 3273 3274 dʒəʊk dʒəʊk ˈdʒəʊ.kər dʒəʊk ʃrɪŋk ʃrɪŋk ʃʌt - ʌp ʃʌt - ʌp ˈʃʌt.ər ˈʃʌt.l .kɒk ˈʃʌt.l - ˈsɜː.vɪs ʃʌnt ʃɜːt ʃaʊər ʃaʊər ʃɒt ʃɒp ʃæmˈpuː ˈʃɔːt.kʌt ˌʃɔːtˈsɜː.kɪt ˌʃɔːtˈtɜːm ˈʃɔː.tɪdʒ ʃɔːt - saɪt ˈʃɔːt.hænd ʃɑːp ʃɔːl joke to crack a joke joker (clown, also in playing cards) to joke shrink to shrink shut up shut up shutter shuttlecock (a game) shuttle service to shunt (railways) shirt shower to take a shower shot shop shampoo short cut short circuit short term shortage short sight short hand sharp shawl 233 dʒook dʒook aʈi dʒookkaɾ dʒook paɳɳu ʂɾiŋk ʂɾiŋk paɳɳu ʂʂaʈap ʂaʈap ʂaʈʈaɾ ʂaʈʈilkaak ʂaʈʈilcaɾʋiis ʂaɳʈ paɳɳu ʂaɾʈ ʂaʋaɾpaat ʂaʋaɾpaat eʈu ʂaaʈ ʂaap ʂaampuu ʂaaɾʈkaʈ ʂaaɾʈcaɾkjuuʈ ʂaaɾʈʈeɾm ʂaaɾʈʈeedʒ ʂaaɾʈsaiʈ ʂaaɾʈhaaɳʈ ʂaaɾp ʂaal 3275 3276 3277 3278 3279 3280 3281 3282 3283 3284 3285 3286 3287 3288 3289 3290 3291 3292 3293 3294 3295 3296 3297 3298 3299 3300 ʃɪp ʃɪft ʃɪft ʃɪft ʃiːt ˈʃiː.tɪŋ ʃiːld ʃiːld ʃuː ˈʃuː.tɪŋ ʃuːt ʃed ˈʃel.tər ʃelf ʃeɪk ʃeər ʃeər ˈʃeəˌhəʊl.dər ʃeɪv ˈʃeɪ.vɪŋ - set ʃaɪ - taɪp ʃəʊ ˈʃəʊ.rʊm skræp skriːn skrætʃ ship shift to shift shift sheet sheeting (cloth for sheets in bales) shield to win the shield (in a competition) shoe shooting to shoot shed shelter shelf to shake share to share shareholder to shave shaving set shy type (of person) to show (off) showroom to scrap screen scratch 234 ʂip ʂipʈ ʂipʈ paɳɳu ʂifʈ ʂiiʈ ʂiiʈʈiŋ ʂiilʈu ʂiilʈu ʋaaŋku ʂuu ʂuuʈʈiŋ ʂuuʈ paɳɳu ʂeʈ ʂelʈʈaɾ ʂelf ʂeek paɳɳu ʂeeɾ ʂeeɾ paɳɳu ʂeeɾhoolʈaɾ ʂeeʋ paɳɳu ʂeeʋiŋceʈ ʂaiʈaip ʂoo paɳɳu ʂooɾuum skɾap paɳɳu skɾiin skɾeeʈc 3301 3302 3303 3304 3305 3306 3307 3308 3309 3310 3311 3312 3313 3314 3315 3316 3317 3318 3319 3320 3321 3322 3323 3324 3325 3326 skrætʃ skreɪp skɜːt ˈskɒl.ər ˈskɒl.ə.ʃɪp ˈskɒl.ə.ʃɪp skɪp ˈskɪp.ər ˈskɪp.ɪŋ-roʊp ˈskrɪb.l skɪl ˈskɪl.fəl skɪn - dɪˈziːz skiːm skiːm skruː skruː skwɒd ˈskwɒd.rən - ˈliː.dər skwɒʃ ˈskuː.tər skuːl sketʃ sketʃ skeɪl skaɪ- blu to scratch to scrape skirt scholar scholarship to get a scholarship to skip skipper (a ship's captain) skipping rope scribble skill skillful skin disease scheme to scheme screw to screw squad squadron leader (military) squash (a game) scooter school sketch to sketch scale sky blue 235 skɾeeʈc paɳɳu skɾeep paɳɳu skaɾʈ skaalaɾ skaalaɾʂip skaalaɾʂip kiʈai skip paɳɳu skippaɾ skippiŋɾoop skiɾipiɭ skil skilfuɭ skin ʈiciis skiim skiim paɳɳu skuɾu skuɾu paɳɳu skuʋaaʈ skuʋaaʈɾanliiʈaɾ skuʋaaʂ skuuʈʈaɾ skuul skeʈc skeʈc paɳɳu skeel skaipuɭuu 3327 3328 3329 3330 3331 3332 3333 3334 3335 3336 3337 3338 3339 3340 3341 3342 3343 3344 3345 3346 3347 3348 3349 3350 3351 3352 skweər skɔːr skɔːr ˈskɔː.bɔːd skaʊt strɔː strɒŋ striːt stretʃ ˈstretʃ.ər stretʃ streɪt streɪn streɪn straɪk straɪk ˌstʌkˈʌp ˌstʌkˈʌp stʌf stʌf stəʊv stʌnd stʌnt stʌnt stɒk stɒk - ɪksˈtʃeɪnd ʒ square score to score score board scout straw strong street stretch stretcher to stretch straight strain to strain strike to strike stuck up to be stuck up stuff to stuff stove stunned stunt to do a stunt stock stock exchange 236 skojaɾ skooɾ skooɾ paɳɳu skooɾ pooɾʈu skauʈ sʈɾaa sʈɾaaŋ sʈɾiiʈ sʈɾeʈc sʈɾeʈccaɾ sʈɾeʈc paɳɳu sʈɾeejʈ sʈɾeejn sʈɾeejn paɳɳu sʈɾaik sʈɾaik paɳɳu sʈak ap sʈak ap aaka iɾu sʈaf sʈaf paɳɳu sʈaʋ sʈanʈ sʈanʈ sʈanʈ paɳɳu sʈaak sʈaak eksceeɲcu 3353 3354 3355 3356 3357 3358 3359 3360 3361 3362 3363 3364 3365 3366 3367 3368 3369 3370 3371 3372 3373 3374 3375 3376 3377 3378 ˈstɒk.ɪŋz stɒk stɒp stɒp stɑːf stæmp stæmp - kəˈlek.tər stæmp -kəˈlek.ʃən ˈstæm.ər ˈstæm.ər stɑːtʃ stɑːtʃ stɑːtʃ stɑːt ˈstɑː.tər stɑːt stɔːl stænd ˈstæn.dəd stɪk ˈstɪk.ər ˈstɪk.ɪŋˌplɑː.stər stɪtʃ stɪtʃ stɪf stɪər stockings stock stop to stop staff stamp stamp collector stamp collection stammer to stammer starch to starch (when laundering clothes) to put starch start starter (automobile) to start stall stand standard stick sticker sticking plaster stitch to stitch stiff to steer (as the steering wheel of a car) 237 sʈaakkiŋs sʈaakku sʈaap sʈaap paɳɳu sʈaaf sʈaamp sʈaampkalekʈaɾ sʈaampkalekʂan sʈaamaɾ sʈaamaɾ paɳɳu sʈaaɾc sʈaaɾc paɳɳu sʈaaɾc pooʈu sʈaaɾʈ sʈaaɾʈʈaɾ sʈaaɾʈ paɳɳu sʈaal sʈaanʈ sʈaanʈaɾʈu sʈik sʈikkaɾ sʈikkiiŋ piɭaasʈaɾ sʈic sʈic paɳɳu sʈif sʈijaɾ paɳɳu 3379 3380 3381 3382 3383 3384 3385 3386 3387 3388 3389 3390 3391 3392 3393 3394 3395 3396 3397 3398 3399 3400 3401 3402 3403 3404 ˈstɪr.ɪŋ ˈstɪr.ɪŋ - wiːl strɪkt strɪp strɪp straɪk ˈstraɪ.kər straɪk stiːm - ˈen.dʒɪn ˈstɪr.ɪŋ ˈster.i.əʊ stiːl ˈstjuː.di.əʊ ˈstjuː.pɪd stjuː ˈstjuː.dənt stuːl stuːlz ˈsteθ.ə.skəʊp step step ˈstepˌmʌð.ər ˈstepˌlæd.ər spɛər- wil steps stem steering steering wheel strict strip to strip strike striker (in the game of carroms) to strike steam engine steering stereo steel studio stupid stew student stool stools stethoscope step to step stepmother stepladder spare wheel (of a car) to take steps stem 238 sʈijaɾiŋ sʈijaɾiŋʋiil sʈiɾikʈ sʈiɾip sʈiɾip paɳɳu sʈiɾaik sʈiɾaikkaɾ sʈiɾaik paɳɳu sʈiim endʒin sʈiijaɾiŋ sʈiiɾijoo sʈiil sʈuʈitjoo sʈupiʈ sʈuu sʈuuʈaɳʈ sʈuul sʈuuls sʈetaaskoop sʈep sʈep paɳɳu sʈepmataɾ sʈeplaaʈaɾ sʈepni sʈeps eʈu sʈem 3405 3406 3407 3408 3409 3410 3411 3412 3413 3414 3415 3416 3417 3418 3419 3420 3421 3422 3423 3424 3425 3426 3427 3428 3429 3430 ˈstɜː.lɪŋ stəˈnɒg.rə.fər stəˈnɒg.rə.fər steɪ - ˈɔː.dər steɪt steɪt - bæŋk ˈsteɪt.mənt ˈsteɪt.smən ˈsteɪ.di.əm ˈsteɪ.pl ˈsteɪ.pl ˈsteɪ.plər steɪn ˈsteə.keɪs steər steɪdʒ ˈsteɪ.ʃən ˈsteɪ.ʃənˌmɑː.stər ˈsteɪ.ʃən.ər.i ˈstaɪ.pend staɪl staɪl stɔːr stɔːrz ˈstɔː.ri ˈstɔː.rɪdʒ sterling (as in sterling silver) steno(grapher) stenographer stay order (government administration) state state bank statement statesman stadium staple to staple stapler stain staircase to stare stage station station master stationary stipend style to be/act stylish store stores story storage 239 sʈeɾliŋ sʈe sʈenookiɾaafaɾ sʈee aaɾʈaɾ sʈeeʈ sʈeeʈpaaŋk sʈeeʈmenʈ sʈeeʈsmeen sʈeeʈijam sʈeeppiɭ sʈeeppiɭ paɳɳu sʈeepɭaɾ sʈeejn sʈeeɾkees sʈeeɾ paɳɳu sʈeedʒ sʈeeʂan sʈeeʂanmaasʈaɾ sʈeeʂanaɾi sʈaippeɳʈ sʈail sʈail paɳɳu sʈooɾ sʈooɾs sʈooɾi sʈooɾeedʒ 3431 3432 3433 3434 3435 3436 3437 3438 3439 3440 3441 3442 3443 3444 3445 3446 3447 3448 3449 3450 3451 3452 3453 3454 3455 3456 stəʊv staʊt spred spred spreɪ spreɪ spreɪn spreɪn spreɪn splɪt splɪt splɪt ˈsplen.dɪd spɒt spɒt spɑːk spɑːk - plʌg spɑːk spʌndʒ ˈspæn.ər sprɪŋ sprɪŋ ˈspɪn.dl ˈspɪn.ɪŋ - mɪl ˈspiː.kər spiːtʃ stove stout spread to spread spray to spray sprain to be sprained to sprain split to be/become split to split splendid spot to spot spark spark plug to spark sponge spanner spring to spring spindle spinning mill speaker speech 240 sʈau sʈauʈ spɾeʈ spɾeʈ paɳɳu spɾee spɾee paɳɳu spɾeejn spɾeejn aaku spɾeejn paɳɳu spɭiʈ spɭiʈ aaku spɭiʈ paɳɳu spɭenʈiʈ spaaʈ spaaʈ paɳɳu spaaɾk spaaɾkpɭak spaaɾk paɳɳu spaanɲc spaanaɾ spiɾiŋ spiɾiŋ paɳɳu spinʈil spinniŋmil spiikkaɾ spiic 3457 3458 3459 3460 3461 3462 3463 3464 3465 3466 3467 3468 3469 3470 3471 3472 3473 3474 3475 3476 3477 3478 3479 3480 3481 3482 spiːtʃ spiːd ˈspʊtnɪk spuːl spuːn spend spend ˈspeʃ.əl ˈspeʃ.əl.ɪst speɪd speər - pɑːt speɪs ˈspeɪs.ʃɪp ˈspeɪ.ʃəs spaɪ spaɪk spəʊks spɔːts ˈsmʌg.lər ˈsmʌg.l ˈsmʌg.l smɑːt smel smaɪl smaɪl smaɪl to give a speech speed sputnik spool spoon spend to spend special specialist spade sparepart space spaceship spacious spy spike spokes sports smuggler smuggle to smuggle smart smell smile to give a smile to smile 241 spiic koʈu spiiʈ spuʈnik spuul spuun spenʈ spenʈ paɳɳu speʂal speʂalisʈ speeʈ speeɾpaaɾʈ spees speesʂip speeʂijas spai spaik spooks spooɾʈs smakɭaɾ smakiɭ smakiɭ paɳɳu smaaɾʈ smel smail smail koʈu smail paɳɳu 3483 3484 3485 3486 3487 3488 3489 3490 3491 3492 3493 3494 3495 3496 3497 3498 3499 3500 3501 3502 3503 3504 3505 3506 3507 3508 smoke to smoke surcharge stretcher salute slack shirt (a shirt not tucked into trousers) slaughterhouse slab slap to slap slant sling (a wide piece of cloth looped under an injured arm for support) to put/wear a sling slip to slip slippers sleeves slate slate slide slightly to slide slide slice to slice slow 242 sməʊk sməʊk ˈsɜː.tʃɑːdʒ ˈstretʃ.ər səˈluːt slæk - ʃɜːt ˈslɔː.tə.haʊs slæb slæp slæp slɑːnt slɪŋ slɪŋ slɪp slɪp ˈslɪp.ərz sliːvz sleɪt sleɪt slaɪd ˈslaɪt.li slaɪd slaɪd slaɪs slaɪs sləʊ smook smook paɳɳu sɾcaaɾdʒ sɾeʈccaɾ sljuuʈ slaakʂaɾʈ slaaʈʈaɾhaʋus slaap slaap slaap paɳɳu slaanʈ sliŋ sliŋ pooʈu slip slip paɳɳu slippaɾs sliiʋs sleeʈ sleeʈʈu slaiʈ slaiʈ aaka slai paɳɳu slaiʈu slais slais paɳɳu sloo 3509 3510 3511 3512 3513 3514 3515 3516 3517 3518 3519 3520 3521 3522 3523 3524 3525 3526 3527 3528 3529 3530 3531 3532 3533 3534 ˈsləʊ.gən sləʊp sləʊ swɪtʃ swɪtʃ swɪtʃ ˈswɪtʃ.bɔːd swiːts ˈswet.ər snʌb snʌb snæp snæp sʌk ˈsʌk.ʃən - pʌmp səkˈses ˈsʌd.ən səˈpiː.nə səˈpɔːt səˈpɔːt səˈpəʊz ˌsʌb.məˈriːn ˈsʌb.weɪ səˈplaɪ səˈplaɪ səˈplaɪ.ər slogan slope to slow switch to switch off to switch on switchboard sweets sweater snub to snub snap to take a snap to suck suction pump success sudden subpeona (legal) support to support suppose submarine subway supply to supply supplier 243 slookan sloop sloo paɳɳu sʋiʈc sʋiʈc aɳai sʋiʈc pooʈu sʋiʈc pooɾʈu sʋiiʈs sʋeʈʈaɾ snap snap paɳɳu snaap snaap sak paɳɳu sakʂanpamp saksas saʈan sappiinaa sappooɾʈ sappooɾʈ paɳɳu sappoos sapmeɾiin sapʋee sapɭai sapɭai paɳɳu sapɭaijaɾ 3535 3536 3537 3538 3539 3540 3541 3542 3543 3544 3545 3546 3547 3548 3549 3550 3551 3552 3553 3554 3555 3556 3557 3558 3559 3560 suffer to suffer sump (a water tank at ground level) summer summons (legal) to give summons (legal) search to search search warrant (legal) surname surprise to give a surprise to surprise servant survey to survey surveyor surgeon surrender to surrender to be sultry sulphur salute to salute to salute saloon (barber's shop, a specially built railway carriage) 244 ˈsʌf.ər ˈsʌf.ər sʌmp ˈsʌm.ər ˈsʌm.ənz ˈsʌm.ənz sɜːtʃ sɜːtʃ sɜːtʃ - ˈwɒr.ənt ˈsɜː.neɪm səˈpraɪz səˈpraɪz səˈpraɪz ˈsɜː.vənt ˈsɜː.veɪ(n)/səˈveɪ(v) səˈveɪ səˈveɪ.ər ˈsɜː.dʒən sərˈen.dər sərˈen.dər ˈsʌl.tri ˈsʌl.fər səˈluːt səˈluːt səˈluːt səˈluːn safaɾ safaɾ paɳɳu samp saammaɾ sammans sammans koʈu saɾc saɾc paɳɳu saɾc ʋaaɾaɳʈ saɾneem saɾpɾais saɾpɾais koʈu saɾpɾais paɳɳu saɾʋanʈ saɾʋee saɾʋee paɳɳu saɾʋeejaɾ saɾdʒan saɾaɳʈaɾ saɾaɳʈaɾ paɳɳu salʈɾi aaka iɾu salfaɾ saljuuʈ saljuuʈ aʈi saljuuʈ paɳɳu saluun 3561 3562 3563 3564 3565 3566 3567 3568 3569 3570 3571 3572 3573 3574 3575 3576 3577 3578 3579 3580 3581 3582 3583 3584 3585 3586 ˈsɒv.ər.ɪn saʊnd saʊθ ˈsʌn.deɪ səˈspɪʃ.ən ˈsʌs.pekt(n)/səˈspekt(v) səˈspekt səˈspend səˈspen.ʃən səˈspent s sɔː sɒŋ ˈsæt.ə.deɪ ˈsɔː.dʌst ˈsæn.dəl.wʊd ˈsɑːm.pl sɜːr sɔːt - aʊt sɔː.tɪŋ - ˈɒf.ɪs sɔːt ˈsɔː.tər ˈsɑː.dʒənt sɒlt ˈsæl.əd ˈsɒv.ər.ɪn ˈsæn.dəlz sovereign sound south Sunday suspicion suspect to suspect to suspend suspension suspense saw song Saturday sawdust sandalwood sample sir to sort out (to separate, to distinguish)(postal) sorting office (postal) to sort (postal) sorter sergeant (military) salt salad sovereign sandals 245 saʋaɾan saʋuɳʈu saʋut sanʈee sasʈiʂan saspekʈ saspekʈ paɳɳu saspeɳʈu paɳɳu saspenʂan saspens saa saaŋ saaʈʈaɾʈee saaʈasʈ saaɳʈalʋuʈ saampiɭ saaɾ saaɾʈauʈ paɳɳu saaɾʈʈiŋ aapiis saaɾʈ paɳɳu saaɾʈaɾ saaɾdʒeɳʈ saalʈ saalaʈ saaʋaɾan saanʈals 3587 3588 3589 3590 3591 3592 3593 3594 3595 3596 3597 3598 3599 3600 3601 ˈsæn.ɪ.tri(br)/ˈsæn.ɪ.tri(us) ˌsæn.ɪˈteɪ.ʃən ˌsæn.əˈtɔː.ri.əm ˈsɔː.sər slɪp ˈslɪp.ərz ˈsiː.lɪŋ - fæn suː.pərˈseɪf.ti - pɪn haʊs ˈhɒk.i h əʊ ˈtel həʊm ˌhəʊ.miˈɒp.ə.θi ˈhəʊ.stes sanitary… sanitation sanitorium saucer to slip slippers ceiling fan super… safety pin house hockey restaurant (lit. hotel) home homeopathy hostess 246 saaniʈʈaɾi saaniʈʈeeʂan saaniʈʈooɾijam saasaɾ silip paɳɳu silippaɾs siiliŋfaan suupaɾ seepʈipin haʋus haakki hooʈʈal hoom hoomijoopati hoosʈas [...]... there are not existing phonological analyses of loanword adaptation in Tamil, this paper aims to fill this gap in knowledge so that we can gain further insight into Tamil phonology and also to enrich the current field In the next section, we discuss contemporary ideas on loanword adaptation 1.4 Current Views in Loanword Adaptation As mentioned previously in the chapter, loanword adaptation has gathered... some extent, in form, but in sound, Tamil always resists the influence of the other languages (Rajan 1980:310) Thus we see that the Tamil grammarians place great emphasis in maintaining the ―purity‖ of Tamil with some of them exalting the language as kannittamil ―virgin‖ (Meenakshisundaram 1965: 1) Even though borrowings are frowned upon in the language, research on borrowings do exist but most of... also constrained by the need to be similar to the source and match the native system In this dissertation, we present a study of loanword adaptation in Tamil based on data from a dictionary of English words adapted into Modern Tamil (Tucker 1986) Even though there is no lack of research about loanword adaptation in the field, not much focus has been paid to Modern Tamil Prior research in Tamil loanwords... speaking also known as centamil ‗pure Tamil , with little focus on the ‗low‘ variety used for purposes of conversation also known as kotuntamil ‗harsh Tamil (Steever 1998: 6, Asher 1985: ix) We shall see in the next section that the opinions towards the formal and informal varieties of Tamil and attitudes towards language will play a role in the research of Tamil loanwords 5 1.3 Prior Research in Tamil. .. 5 1.3 Prior Research in Tamil Loanwords and Tamil Many loanwords have been borrowed into Tamil over the course of its long history, but research in this area has not received great emphasis This is not surprising as there is traditionally a sense of linguistic purism within the community This attitude persists even today in the bifurcation of Tamil into centamil and kotutamil, which has positive and... the history of the Tamil language, describing some loanwords and their sources, and the period they entered the language Rajan (1980) summarises briefly research in Tamil loanwords and provides some description of loanword data Vaidyanathan (1971) discusses Indo- 6 Aryan loanwords in Old Tamil, and Zvelebil and Vacek (1970) provides detailed data on some loanwords even though their main goal was to describe... two thousand year uninterrupted history of the 4 language can be distinguished as belonging to three different stages: Old Tamil (300 BCE to 700 CE), Middle Tamil (700–1600) and Modern Tamil (1600– present), each with distinct grammatical characteristics (Lehmann 1998:75) Currently, Tamil is the first language of the majority in Tamil Nadu in India, and the Northern and Eastern Provinces of Sri Lanka... firstly, to identify the adaptation patterns in Tamil loanwords on the various levels of the phonology; secondly, in light of the current views in loan adaptation, this dissertation aims to test whether one of the viewpoints can best deal with the data in Tamil The structure of the dissertation is as follows: Chapter 2 introduces the orthographic and phonological system of Tamil comparing it with English... gathered huge attention in linguistics, especially in the area of phonology, with extensive research conducted in this topic, and there is a degree of consensus that it is not random but systematic, with differences existing in their theoretical assumptions and frameworks used In this section, we briefly introduce the main views taken with regard to loanword adaptation The three main positions taken can... the influence of Sanskrit and words borrowed from Sanskrit were called vatacol (northern word) in the Tolkāppiyam which highlights the north-south divide in India Loanwords still crept into the language despite strong resistance because of trading links and cultural influences but not without any struggle (Meenakshisundaram 1965: 169-193) Though vocabulary is drawn in, in thought and to some extent, in ... bɭaak p b Intervocalically, single voiceless English plosives are adapted as geminates in Tamil This oddity in adaptation may have arisen because single plosives in the native grammar of Tamil undergo... and the combined viewpoints In terms of phoneme mapping, we claim that an appeal has to be made to typological influences and bilingualism to account for the prevalence of voicing in adaptations... adapted into Modern Tamil (Tucker 1986) Even though there is no lack of research about loanword adaptation in the field, not much focus has been paid to Modern Tamil Prior research in Tamil loanwords