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... by the author On the other hand, author decodes the meanings of the three churches based on personal experience during exploring the data and engaging in the activities in churches during the. .. defines inculturation as follows: Inculturation is the intimate transformation of authentic cultural values through their integrations in Christianity, and the insertion of Christianity in the. .. discussion 1.4 Limitation of the Study Based on the experience during survey for this study, there are many cases on architectural inculturation which could be found in the Catholic churches in Java
ARCHITECTURAL INCULTURATION AND TRANSFORMATION: A CASE STUDY ON THREE CATHOLIC CHURCHES IN JAVA ADI SANTOSA [BA (Hons.), Indonesia Institute of the Arts Yogyakarta] A THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS IN ARCHITECTURE DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE 2010 i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I praise to the Lord for His abounding love through the people and institutions around me. My study at the National University of Singapore would not have been possible without sponsorship. Accordingly, I give a high appreciation to Petra Christian University and the Ministry of Higher Education of the Republic of Indonesia that have provided a full scholarship to me. During my studies and preparation for this thesis research, the role of supervisors has been very important to me. I express my infinite gratitude to Dr. Johannes Widodo as my supervisor who has guided me with all the discussions that opened my mind, the instructions that facilitated the process of writing my research, and the wise advices that made me stay motivated until the completion of this research. My gratitude also goes to Dr. Lilian Chee as my previous supervisor. Her coaching in the early days has been very important as a basis for subsequent writings. My research would not have progressed smoothly without any person or institution willing to help provide the data and information. Therefore, on this account I also wish to express my gratitude and appreciation to those who have helped provide materials for my research in the field survey: • Mgr. Ignatius Suharyo, Pr, former Archbishop of the Archbishopric of Semarang. • Sariyanto, Pr, Vicar General of the Vicariate of Yogyakarta. • Dominicus Bambang Sutrisno, Pr, Director of the Museum of Mission of Muntilan, and staffs: mas Anton and mas Seno. • Hendrikus van Opzeeland, SJ, former supervisor for Propaganda Fide building projects, Jesuits Province of Indonesia. ii • Yoseph Suyatno Hadiatmojo, Pr, Priest of the St. John the Apostle of Somohitan Church. • Christophorus Sutrasno Purwanto, Pr, Priest of the Santa Maria Assumpta of Klaten Church. • Krismawan Aris Dwiyanto, Secretary of the Sacred Heart of Jesus of Ganjuran Church. • Sumardiyanto, Ir., M.Sc, Ismartono P. Rahardjo, Ir., MIH.Sc, and Benny Kristiawan, ST, architects from Atmajaya University, Yogyakarta. • Albertus Bagus Laksana, SJ, theologian from Sanata Dharma University, Yogyakarta. • St. Ignatius Seminary Library, Yogyakarta, and Library of Department of Architecture, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta. I am also grateful to all my friends for sharing and helping during my study in Singapore. Finally, I thank all my family, especially my beloved wife and son, and my parents and parents-in-laws. All their love, care, support and prayers have allowed me to survive and enable me to complete my study. Adi Santosa Singapore, 2010 iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Title Page ……………………………………………………………………….. i Acknowledgement ……………………………………………………………… ii Table of Contents ………………………………………………………………. iv Summary ……………………………………………………………………….. vi List of Figures ………………………………………………………………….. vii Chapter 1: Introduction ……………………………………………………….. 1 1.1. Background ………………………………………………………………... 1 1.2. Objective of the Study and Research Question …………………………… 3 1.3. Methodology ………………………………………………………………. 4 1.4. Limitation of the Study ……………………………………………………. 5 Chapter 2: Theoretical Review ………………………………………………... 6 2.1. Levels of Cultural Encounter ……………………………………………… 6 2.2. Development of Inculturation and Church Councils ……………………… 9 2.3. Java: History, Cultural Identity, and City …………………………………. 12 2.4. Javanese Architecture ……………………………………………………... 20 2.5. Religious Architecture in Java …………………………………………….. 24 2.6. New Dutch-Indies Architecture and Indonesian Modern Architecture …… 27 2.7. Catholic Church in Indonesian Archipelago ……………………………… 30 Chapter 3: Development of the Three Churches ………………………..…… 37 3.1. The Ganjuran Church ……………………………………………………... 38 3.2. The Klaten Church ………………………………………………………… 49 3.3. The Somohitan Church ……………………………………………………. 56 Chapter 4: Architectural Inculturation and Transformation ………………. 70 4.1. Juxtaposing …..……………………………………………………………. 70 4.2. Superimposing …...….…………………………………………………….. 76 4.3. Interlocking ...……………………………………………………………… 81 iv Chapter 5: Discussion ………………………..………………………………… 87 5.1. The Significance of the Church Architectural Inculturation …...…………. 87 5.2. Benchmark in the Church Architectural Inculturation ……………………. 91 5.3. Design Approach in the Church Architectural Inculturation ……………… 93 5.4. The Role of Architects, Parish Priests and Parishioners ………………….. 94 5.5. Social Communication in the Church Architectural Inculturation ………... 98 Chapter 6: Conclusion ………………………………………………………… 99 Bibliography ……………………………………………………………………. 104 Appendix 1: Articles …………………………………………............................ 109 Appendix 2: The Ganjuran Church …………………………………………... 134 Appendix 3: The Klaten Church ……………………………………………… 138 Appendix 4: The Somohitan Church …………………………………………. 141 v SUMMARY Inculturation is a movement in Catholicism to respect local wisdoms and customs of various cultures in the world and to harmonize them with Gospel. In practice, inculturation has materialized in Church liturgy. By inculturation, Latin liturgy was not the only liturgy in Catholicism. Each archbishop has had a chance to develop their own liturgies by accommodating local cultural values. Inculturation in church architecture is needed to fulfill various spatial needs for distinctive expressions in those liturgies. Inculturation has enabled forms and functions of church architecture transformed from universal standards to local variations. Besides, interpretation of meanings in church architecture has become more plentiful, and it contains a duality between local and universal meaning. Choosing three Catholic churches in Java as the case study, this study tried to reveal architectural inculturation by analyzing their development and examining their transformation of forms, functions, and meanings. Furthermore, this study aims to generate broader understandings about the church architectural inculturation through a discussion based on the result of developments analyses and transformation examinations. Employing a typological approach, this study found that the way the three churches transformed their forms, functions, and meanings can be classified in three configurations including juxtaposing, superimposing, and interlocking. Through a discussion on this typological analysis and combined with interviews data, this study has generated some points especially related to the significance of the church architectural inculturation and the requirements to success the conducting of church architectural inculturation. Keywords: architecture, inculturation, transformation. vi LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Maps of Indonesia and Central Java ……………………………… 3 Figure 2: Level of cultural encounter diagram ……………………………… 9 Figure 3: Timeline chart of Inculturation …………………………………… 9 Figure 4: Timeline chart of the Church Council …………………………….. 11 Figure 5: Prambanan and Borobudur Temple ……………………………….. 13 Figure 6: Ancient and recent cities in Java ………………………………….. 15 Figure 7: Capital city of Majapahit according to Mclaine Pont …………….. 17 Figure 8: Ancient Yogyakarta City ………………………………………….. 19 Figure 9: Joglo, limasan, and kampong building typology ……...………….. 22 Figure 10: Room division in Javanese traditional house ……………………... 23 Figure 11: Sequence of the Javanese architectural culture …………………… 26 Figure 12: Timeline chart of the religious architecture in Java ………………. 26 Figure 13: Variation of the New Dutch-Indies architectural conceptions ……. 28 Figure 14: Neo-gothic churches in Jakarta, Surabaya and Malang …………... 33 Figure 15: Churches with local forms in Sidikalang and Tuka ………………. 35 Figure 16: Timeline chart of Catholic Church in Indonesia ………………….. 35 Figure 17: Map of the Chosen Churches ……………………………………... 37 Figure 18: Site of the Ganjuran Church complex …………………………….. 38 Figure 19: Exterior and interior of the early Ganjuran church ……………….. 40 Figure 20: A Mass in front of the Monument of the Sacret Heart of Jesus …... 40 Figure 21: First phase of the development of the Ganjuran Church complex ... 41 Figure 22: Second phase of the development of the Ganjuran Church complex …………………………………………………………… 43 Figure 23: Exterior and interior of the temporary church …………………….. 44 Figure 24: Façade of the early Ganjuran church after earthquake ……………. 45 Figure 25: Exterior and interior of the recent Ganjuran church ……………… 45 Figure 26: Third phase of the development of the Ganjuran Church complex . 46 Figure 27: Compilation of the building typologies at the Ganjuran Church …. 47 Figure 28: Site of the Klaten Church complex ……………………………….. 50 Figure 29: First phase of the development of the Klaten Church complex …... 51 Figure 30: The early Klaten church …………………………………………... 52 vii Figure 31: Second phase of the development of the Klaten Church complex ... 53 Figure 32: Exterior and interior landscape of the recent Klaten Church ...…… 54 Figure 33: Compilation of the building typologies at the Klaten Church ……. 55 Figure 34: Site of the Somohitan Church complex …………………………… 57 Figure 35: First phase of the development of the Somohitan Church complex 58 Figure 36: The early Somohitan church ……………………………………… 59 Figure 37: An illustration by H. Caminada, SJ ……………………………….. 59 Figure 38: Illustration details by H. Caminada, SJ …………………………… 60 Figure 39: Second phase of the development of the Somohitan Church complex …………………………………………………………… 62 Figure 40: Site of the second Somohitan church ……………………………... 63 Figure 41: Façade of the second Somohitan church ………………………….. 63 Figure 42: Situation at the site of the Somohitan cultural hall ……………….. 65 Figure 43: Third phase of the development of the Somohitan Church complex 66 Figure 44: Façade of the new Somohitan church …………………………….. 67 Figure 45: Compilation of the building typologies at the Somohitan Church ... 68 Figure 46: Transformation of the early Ganjuran church …………………….. 71 Figure 47: Transformation of the early Somohitan church …………………… 73 Figure 48: Transformation of the second Somohitan church ………………… 75 Figure 49: Transformation of the early Klaten church ……………………….. 77 Figure 50: Transformation of the new Ganjuran church ……………………... 79 Figure 51: Transformation of the new Klaten church ………………………… 82 Figure 52: Transformation of the new Somohitan church ……………………. 84 Figure 53: The “astuti”, a ritual to parade the monstrance around the Ganjuran temple …………………………………………………... 88 Figure 54: Gamelan for liturgical music in the Ganjuran church …………….. 89 Figure 55: A pilgrim is praying in front of the statue of Jesus inside the Ganjuran temple …………………………………………………... 90 Figure 56: The luwengan, a small and hidden space to put the tabernacle in the Klaten church ..………………………………………………... 91 Figure 57: Community support from various religious groups in the renovation of the Somohitan church ……………………………… 98 viii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1. Background “Inculturation” is a specific term in Catholicism which relates to the meeting between Christianity and indigenous cultures in the world. The term of “inculturation” has gained its formalization since the Second Vatican Council, a council which was held in Vatican, Rome, from 1962 until 1965. In that council, all delegations from Catholic Church regions in the world came to re-determine the universal Catholic policies, and inculturation is one of the issues which were discussed. The Redemtoris Missio, an encyclical of the Gaudium et Spes decree of the Second Vatican Council, defines inculturation as follows: ‘Inculturation is the intimate transformation of authentic cultural values through their integrations in Christianity, and the insertion of Christianity in the various human cultures. By inculturation, the Church implements the Gospel into various human cultures and puts them into the alliance of the universal Church’1. Inculturation is a movement in Catholicism to respect local wisdoms and customs of various cultures in the world and to harmonize them with Gospel. In practice, inculturation has materialized in Church liturgy. By inculturation, Latin liturgy was not the only liturgy in Catholicism. Each archbishop has had a chance to develop their own liturgies by accommodating local cultural values. Inculturation in church architecture is needed to fulfill various spatial needs for distinctive expressions in those liturgies. Inculturation has enabled forms and functions of church architecture transformed from universal standards to local variations. Besides, interpretation of meanings in church architecture has become more plentiful, and it contains a duality 1 Cited by Robert Hardawiryana, 2001:28-29 1 between local and universal meaning. Local meaning is interpretations towards the church architecture that is interpreted by local parishioners based on their local cultural values, while universal meaning is interpretations that is interpreted by the church institution based on the Gospel teachings. The term of “inculturation” had just gained an official recognition since the Second Vatican Council, held in Vatican, Rome, from 1962 until 1965. However, the practices of inculturation had been existed since many years before. Many missionaries in the past used to employ inculturation as a strategy to localized Christianity in order to be acceptable by indigenous people. Catholic Church in Java2 is an important case because of its success in christianized Javanese by inculturation. Fransiscus Georgius Josephus van Lith, S.J. (1863-1926) is a Dutch missionary in Java who pioneered in applying inculturation by using Javanese language to introduce the Christian values among the Javanese. Moreover, he translated Latin prayers also in Javanese, employed the gamelan for liturgical music instrument, and built his first Church in a Javanese traditional architecture typology of “limasan” in Muntilan in the early twentieth century. Since the era of van Lith, the number of Javanese parishioners increased rapidly. They dispersed in many regions in what is now known as Central Java Province and Yogyakarta Province of Republic Indonesia territory, or in Semarang Archdiocese of Catholic territory. 2 Java is one of the main islands in Indonesian archipelago. In this research, Java is not discerned as an administrative but a cultural territorial entity. Culturally, Java was divided into two basic cultural territories, Javanese and Sundanese. Javanese is the culture of indigenous people who live in the center and the eastern part of Java Island, and Sundanese is the culture of those who live in the western part of Java Island. Based on the cultural history, center part of Java is known as the center of Javanese culture since it has inherited all the Javanese cultural inheritances. This legacy was identified by the existence of the last two Javanese kingdoms, Surakarta and Yogyakarta. 2 Figure 1: Maps of Indonesia and Central Java (author, 2010) 1.2. Objective of the Study and Research Question Choosing three Catholic churches in Java as the case study, this study tried to reveal architectural inculturation by analyzing their development and examining their transformation of forms, functions, and meanings. Furthermore, this study aims to generate broader understandings about the church architectural inculturation through a discussion based on the above development analyses and transformation examination results. More specifically, these broader understandings will be achieved through some research questions including: How the transformation can be categorized? What is the significance of the church architectural inculturation? What is the benchmark in the church architectural inculturation? What design approach is suitable to be applied in the church architectural inculturation? How is the role of architects, parish priests and parishioners in the church architectural inculturation? Why social communication is important in the church architectural inculturation? Finally, all the questions lead to a formulation: What are the requirements to success the conducting of church architectural inculturation? 3 1.3. Methodology In this study, the discussion begins with a review of theories and data as the basic knowledge to recognize the context of the issues raised. They include: levels of cultural encounter; development of inculturation and church councils; Java: History, Cultural Identity, and City; Javanese architecture; religious architecture in Java; new Dutch-Indies architecture and Indonesian modern architecture; and Catholic Church in Indonesian Archipelago. Architecture of the three parish churches in Java are taken as the case study including: the Ganjuran church, the Klaten church, and the Somohitan church. They are chosen based on a consideration that each churches has unique characteristics related to architectural inculturation, however all of them have a similarity in using Javanese architectural culture as the basic idea to form their architectures. In order to analyze the development of those three churches, the author used typological analysis. Using typological approach, architecture is analyzed based on its physical forms to reveal its functions and meanings. Typological approach allows the analysis relies on the materialized forms so inculturation study could be more focused on the architectural point of view. Functions in the three churches are revealed through typological approach. Other factors including historical, social and cultural is also chronologically analyzed to build an integrative analysis. Architectural inculturation is a transformation of architecture caused by interaction between two different architectural cultures. In another words, identifying architectural transformation could be used as a tool to reveal an architectural inculturation phenomenon. In this study, ‘transformation’ itself is defined as the change of form, function, and meaning of the church architecture that is caused by intercultural interactions. These transformations related to the process of ‘meeting’ of 4 inner and outer architectural culture. Analysis of the transformations results three configurations including juxtaposing, superimposing, and interlocking. The results of development and transformation analyses are used as the bases to reveal architectural inculturation of the chosen three churches in a broader point of view. Interviews with parish priests, church leaders and officials, parishioner leaders and architects of the churches are the main sources for this discussion. Meanings in the three churches are encoded through their opinions. Names of the above respondents are cited to keep the authenticity of opinions as long as they do not interfere with privacy and ethics. Thus, all original interview recordings are kept by the author. On the other hand, author decodes the meanings of the three churches based on personal experience during exploring the data and engaging in the activities in churches during the research in the field. Personal knowledge was acquired through the theoretic studies about inculturation and church architecture. New understandings on the church architectural inculturation are raised through this discussion. 1.4. Limitation of the Study Based on the experience during survey for this study, there are many cases on architectural inculturation which could be found in the Catholic churches in Java. The more cases are taken, the more uniqueness could be revealed. However, because of the limitation of time for survey, the author could only take three churches. Besides, insufficient documentation in several churches complicated this study. For these limitations, the author’s personal interpretation toward incomplete data may not be so valid. 5 CHAPTER 2 THEORETICAL REVIEW 2.1. Levels of Cultural Encounter For Catholic Church, inculturation is a strategy to enter various cultures in the world and an awareness to respect the diversity of cultures. However, Catholic retains its own cultural values from melting or fusing of cultures. Therefore, to avoid the emergence of syncretism, Catholic formulated its own terminology. As stated in the background of this paper, “inculturation” is a specific term in Catholicism which relates to the meeting of Christianity and various indigenous cultures in the world. Related to the “meeting” of cultures, there are several terms and terminologies which could be arranged based on their levels of connectivity, as follows: 1. Inculturation: revealing a relationship between Christian values and worldwide cultures. Churches receive all the world cultural heritages (customs, traditions, wisdoms, art and knowledge) as a contribution to enrich Christianity; on the other hand, they are improved by the Christian values. 2. Enculturation: a process for an individual to enter his/her own culture. He/she needs someone else to support and train him/her in all his/her aspects of life. This learning process differentiates human beings and the other creatures; and by this process a human being will live by his/her cultural manners. 3. Acculturation: a meeting of various cultures, or intercultural contact that results changes and impacts when different cultural groups are in contact continuously. This process will result the changes of the basic cultural pattern of one or both cultures. 6 4. Transculturation: the transfer of cultural characteristics, cultural symbols, cultural meanings, cultural pattern, cultural values, or cultural institutions to another different culture. The transference is repressive and creates a universal characteristic following the repressor. On the other hand, the repressor is reclusive from the influence of the repressed cultures.3 5. Syncretism: Reconciliation or fusion of differing systems of belief, as in philosophy or religion, especially when success is partial or the result is heterogeneous.4 Based on the above definitions, it could be concluded that inculturation is different from enculturation since inculturation occurs in institutional level while enculturation occurs in personal level. Inculturation is also different from acculturation. In inculturation, an outer culture (church) takes the initiative to meet inner cultures (indigenous cultures) to enrich each other; however, they still retain its basic cultural pattern. Acculturation will occur when the initiative has come from the both parties to make continuous and intensive relationships in such a way that one or both of them release some basic cultural patterns. Comparing to transculturation that is repressive, in inculturation, none of any party becomes the repressor or the repressed. Both of them are in an equal position and respect each other. Syncretism is the most intimate relationship among the cultures. It happens when they have melted themselves to create a new hybrid culture. Inculturation occurs by a process. For this research, the process was divided into three steps: early, middle, and late process. All of them, together with the terms of acculturation and syncretism are arranged in a diagram to show their levels of cultural encounter as follows: 3 4 Hardawiryana, 2001:32-33 The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 2009 7 Early Process: Juxtaposing The early configuration of inculturation is the openness between inner and outer culture to juxtapose each another. Therefore, both of them will stand on their own cultures while they learn to find each entry points. Middle Process: Superimposing Inculturation A culture which can find the entry points of the other one more quickly will influence more progressively. Therefore, it will superimpose the other one. Late Process: Interlocking The both cultures will reach a new balance when they have recognized each other in a deep understanding and interlock each another in an equal position. Enculturation Enculturation occures in individual level. It happens when a person enters to a culture and learns to accept that culture to become her/his new culture. Acculturation In acculturation, relationships between two (or more) different cultures continue intensively in such a way that one or both of them release some basic cultural patterns. 8 Transculturation In transculturation, an outer culture enters and penetrates an inner culture to become its patron. Syncretism In syncretism, the two (or more) different cultures meet and melt each other to result a new hybrid culture. Figure 2: Level of cultural encounter diagram (author, 2009) 2.2. Development of Inculturation and Church Councils According to Franzen, he explained that inculturation is a long historical process in Catholicism. His description on inculturation can be summarized in a time line chart as follow: Figure 3: Timeline chart of Inculturation (author, 2009, referring Franzen, 1988) The formulation of inculturation by the Catholics, before this term was formally declared in the Second Vatican Council, has been inspired and developed for many centuries. Franzen wrote that the phenomenon of inculturation started from the Pentecost, when Saint Paul spoke to the Greek at the Aeropagus of Athens by their language. Later, in the history of missions, missionaries such as St. Patrick in Ireland (400s) and Sts. Cyril and Methodius in the Eastern Europe (800’s) adapted 9 Christianity to the local cultural contexts. After discoveries of the Americas, Asia and Africa by Spanish and Portuguese after Renaissance, the Jesuits Matteo Ricci and others had successfully introduced Christianity to China by adapting the Catholic faith to Chinese thinking and cultural practicing. Finally, the long term practices of inculturation have also influenced the policies of the church leaders. Franzen wrote as follows5: In 1894, Pope Leo XIII produced encyclical Praeclara Gratulationis that praised the cultural and liturgical diversity of expressions of faith within the Church. Pope Benedict XV, since 1919 has attempted inculturation by deEuropeanization of the Catholic missions to develop the autonomy of local clergies. In 1939 Pope Pius XII wrote in Summi Pontificatus that a deeper appreciation into the various civilizations and their good qualities are necessary to the preaching of the Gospel of Christ. He also demanded recognition of local cultures as fully equal to European culture. After Pius XII, John Paul II addressed the issue of inculturation in several encyclicals and public appearances. In the encyclical Slavorum Apostoli (1985), he defined inculturation as “the incarnation of the Gospel in native cultures and also the introduction of these cultures into the life of the Church”; and in the encyclical Redemptoris Missio in 1990, he also defined inculturation as “the intimate transformation of authentic cultural values through their integration in Christianity and the insertion of Christianity in the various human cultures." Finally, Redemptoris Missio 52 stated that “inculturation is a theological term which has been defined as the on-going dialogue between faith and culture."6 The above description implied that from practical actions, inculturation has become the papal teachings. In the history of Christianity, some of the papal teachings have also influenced to or been influenced by the church councils, the meetings of all churches representations from all church territories to discuss and produce decrees related to Gospel canons, ecclesiastical teachings and protocols. Church council has become an important inheritance for Christianity, and Catholic Church deeply concerns to it. During its history, Catholic Church has acknowledged 21 councils which were divided into three periods as follows: 5 6 Franzen, 1988 in http://www.reference.com See: John Paul II, 1990:52-54 10 Figure 4: Timeline chart of the Church Council (author, 2009, referring Tanner, 2003) The first seven councils, Nicaea I until Nicaea II, are the most ecumenical since it represented universal churches. Western (Rome), Orthodox, and Eastern (Constantinople) Churches took equal roles in those councils. Early Christianity councils were held in Eastern Europe and employed Greek as the main language. In the discussions, they were more focusing on Gospel canons and ecclesiastical teaching. Nevertheless, in the Medieval Ages, all councils were identical with Western Church councils since a schism between Western and Eastern Church occurred. Besides, they were held in Western Europe and Latin has been used instead of Greek. In the discussion, they were more focus on issuing ecclesiastical protocols. The emergence of Protestantism in the fifteenth century revealed a modern council of Trento. Although the early aim of this council was to accommodate the reformist’s indictments, it finally delivered contra-reform decisions. The First Vatican Council was held to complete some suspended decisions of the Trento Council related to the role of pope. Nevertheless, the Second Vatican Council did not continue the First Vatican Council but innovated new and unpredicted decisions related to ecclesiastical life and world life. This council produced 16 decrees.7 Two of them, Ad 7 According to Tanner, 2003:120-121, they include: Sacrosanctum Concilium (constitution concerning Holy Liturgy, 1963), Inter Mirifica (decree concerning mass media, 1963), Lumen Gentium (dogmatic 11 Gentes and Gaudium et Spes, are the most important decrees related to inculturation. Later, Slavorum Apostoli and Redemptoris Missio, two encyclicals by Pope John Paul II which concerned to inculturation (as it has been discussed above), was produced to respond these decrees. 2.3. Java: History, Cultural Identity, and City Java is one of the five biggest islands in Indonesia. It is about 1.100 kilometers length and 120 kilometer width in average. The total area of Java is approximately 132,187 square kilometers, occupying approximately seven percent of the total land area in Indonesia. Despite the relatively small percentage, but Java is currently inhabited by about 40% of the total Indonesian population which amounted to more than 250 million people. So Java is an island with the densest population in Indonesia, and the density is accumulated in the big cities in Java such as Jakarta, Surabaya, Bandung, Semarang, Yogyakarta, Surakarta, and Malang. Historically, Java has evolved and has a prominent role as a center of civilization in the archipelago since the 8th century, under the Buddhist kingdom of the dynasty of Syailendra. Artifacts that can be seen up to now are the Buddhist temples scattered in the region of Central Java. Two of the most famous temples are Borobudur and the temple complex of Sewu. Progress was caused by the proliferation of Java that allows the development of the agricultural culture. Since the dynasty of constitution concerning Church, 1964), Orientalium Ecclesiarum (decree concerning Eastern Catholic Church, 1964), Unitatis Redintegratio (decree concerning ecumenicalism, 1964), Christus Dominus (decree concerning bishop’s ecclesiastical pastoral tasks, 1965), Perfectae Caritatis (decree concerning renewal and adaptation of religious life, 1965), Optatam Totius (decree concerning priest course, 1965), Gravissimum Educationis (declaration concerning Christian Education, 1965), Nostrae Aetate (declaration concerning relationship between Church and non-Christian religions, 1965), Dei Verbum (dogmatic constitution concerning divine revelation, 1965), Apostolicam Actuositatem (decree concerning laity apostolate, 1965), Dignitatis Humanae (declaration concerning religious freedom, 1965), Ad Gentes (decree concerning Church mission, 1965), Presbyterorum Ordinis (decree concerning priesthood service and life, 1965), Gaudium et Spes (pastoral constitution concerning Church in the recent world, 1965). 12 Syailendra, Java has become a major rice producer in the archipelago, and a surplus of rice production has enabled Java become suppliers to other regions outside of Java. Figure 5: Prambanan and Borobudur Temple (Siswantoro, 2010) The fertility of the island of Java is inseparable from the existence of many active volcanoes. Volcanic ash which became the source of soil fertility is a result of the eruptions of volcanoes. Until now there are 35 active volcanoes on the island of Java. The advance of agriculture in Java continued until the next period of the Hindu Mataram kingdom in the 9th century AD, with its greatest heritage includes the temple complex of Prambanan and Ratu Boko Palace in Central Java. Due to a disaster that so far not been recorded clearly, in the year 1006 AD, Hindu-Javanese kingdom in Central Java moved to East Java, and it reached its prosperity during the reign of Majapahit Kingdom from the 14th century to 15th century AD. During the golden age, the power of the Majapahit Kingdom is thought to cover almost the entire territory of the archipelago. Although some historians doubt the truth that the source power of Majapahit was caused by their military power, but it could hardly indisputable that the strong influence of Majapahit to other regions outside of Java, is because those areas dependent on rice supplies from Java. 13 Since the late 15th century, Majapahit Kingdom declined due to the internal conflicts, along with the decline of the Hindu-India cultural polarization in Southeast Asia, as well as the increasing influence of Islamic and Chinese cultures into Java through the merchants of Gujarat (India-Islam) and China. The development of trade and maritime culture, particularly in regions along the northern coast of Java Island, has given birth to the cities of independent trade such as Banten, Jayakarta, Cirebon, Semarang, Demak, Kudus and Jepara. The strengthening of these trading cities eventually led to a new political force which can ultimately defeat the power of Majapahit. Demak finally emerged as the first Islamic kingdom in Java that could take over the role of power of Majapahit in the early 16th century. The power of the maritime kingdom of Demak in Java did not last long. Pajang, a kingdom based on agriculture in inland Central Java, managed to take power from Demak and shifted the center of power back into the inland of Java. Thus, trading towns on the north coast of Java was again controlled by agriculture-based empires. Islamic-Mataram, established in Kotagede at the end of the 16th century, was the next agriculture-based kingdom that took power from Pajang, and it had reached the peak of success at the time led by Sultan Agung in the early 17th century. In the subsequent period, Islamic-Mataram kingdom was experiencing a lot of conflicts and eventually divided into two kingdoms, Surakarta and Yogyakarta in 1755.8 The weakening of the political power of Islamic-Mataram has allowed the Dutch that originally only controlled the city of Jayakarta in the beginning of the 17th 8 These two kingdoms still exist today, and become part of the Republic of Indonesia. In fact, the Sultanate of Yogyakarta is still recognized its political power by the Indonesian government by determining the region of Yogyakarta as a special province, where the Sultan automatically has the right to lead the region as the governor. 14 century,9 finally mastering the entire Java as part of the Dutch colony in the East Indian region. Until the end of the Dutch colonial period, namely in 1942, Java retained as a granary for the Dutch East Indies territory. Figure 6: Ancient and recent cities in Java (Zahnd, 2008) Agriculture that had been the source of life for Javanese for centuries had shaped the character of Javanese culture. First, farming is closely related to natural cycles, namely the planting and harvesting rice performed at certain seasons, and they are done repeatedly with the same pattern. Thus, the Javanese are familiar with regularity, not drastic changes. Second, the work of the farming is work to do together. Therefore, the Javanese prefer togetherness and unity of life. Third, farmers like to collect. Agricultural products are collected and stored so it can be eaten until the next harvest. 9 Once ruled by the Dutch, the name of Jayakarta was changed to Batavia, and after Indonesian independence in 1945, the name of Batavia was renamed Jakarta. 15 With the above three characteristics, the basis of Javanese culture is formed. Thus, many new cultures coming from outside are accepted, then be adapted to the pre-existing culture; so even though many foreign cultures entered and accepted in Java, but the native culture is not lost but melted in it. ‘The typical of Javanese culture lies in its ability to let itself flooded by many waves of foreign cultures, and in that floods it retain its authenticity.’10 With the above historical development and cultural identity, the emergence of cities in Java are more influenced by the existence of agricultural-based kingdoms in inland Java rather than by the existence of maritime-based kingdoms in the north coast of Java. The cities based on trading culture only lies along the north coast of Java such as Jakarta, Semarang and Surabaya, while other cities in inland of Java are automatically based on agricultural culture. Yogyakarta and Surakarta are two examples of inland cities in Java that inherited a pattern of agricultural-based cities from Hindu-Mataram Kingdom in Central Java and Majapahit Kingdom in East Java. According to Santoso (2008), cities in Java during pre-colonial era have two basic principles: sacred axis and circumference fence. The principle of sacred axis has been existed since the era of Sanjaya Dynasty in Central Java in the 8th century. Mendut Temple and Borobudur Temple laid in a sacred axis that shows a sacred route for pilgrims to reach Borobudur in the past. The same pattern can also be found on the reconstruction of the capital of Majapahit Kingdom in Trowulan, East Java. The principle of this sacred axis can be categorized as typical of the original town of Java, since this principle did not only exist in the Hindu and Buddhist, but also continued until the Islamic period. The pattern of the capital of the Islamic Mataram Kingdom of Yogyakarta also continued to apply this principle. 10 Suseno, 2001:1 16 Figure 7: Capital city of Majapahit according to Maclaine Pont (Santoso, 2008) 17 Early development of the principle of the circumference fence can be found in the temple complex of Prambanan (Siva) and Sewu (Buddhism). The main function of this fence is not as a fortress but a territorial boundary that distinguishes the sacred area with the profane area. In the Majapahit era, circumference fence only limited royal palace area, while other city elements such as city hall, religious buildings, market and settlements have absolutely no guardrails. Thus, in contrast to the principles of the fortress town, cities in Java do not have a castle that serves as a means of defense. This principle continued to be applied for the pattern of capital city of Islamic Mataram Kingdom, where a fortified fence around the king’s palace was also not fully functioning as a bulwark of defense, considering civil and military settlements located outside the fortress palace. Likewise, the royal officials and the princes also resided mostly outside the fortress palace. At the king’s palace, circumference fence is not enabled for personal sanctify of the king, but royal heirlooms. Inheritance-heirlooms were believed to have supernatural powers to protect the safety of the Kingdom of the threat of the enemy as well as the nature. Besides, they are also believed to be the source of fertility. As in the Palace of Yogyakarta and Surakarta, every year these Palaces held a ritual of washing the heirlooms. Villagers always come in the ceremony and they will be competing for the water that was used to wash the heirlooms. They believe that the water can fertilize rice fields and drive away pests. Furthermore, if extreme conditions such as famine due to weather and pests occurred, the heirlooms will be paraded out, and the accounts will be able to restore nature in normal conditions, paddy fields will return fruitful and harvest will overflow again. 18 Figure 8: Ancient Yogyakarta City (Santoso, 2008) 19 The above discussion shows how agricultural culture has affected the pattern of the cities in Java, where its continuity can be seen from the era of Buddhism, Hinduism, until Islam. However, this continuity was over since the Netherlands colonized Java. Layout pattern based on the alignment of a cosmic relationship between man and nature is replaced with a layout pattern based on functional consideration and rationality. As an example is the construction of the railway in the early 19th century connecting Yogyakarta with other cities in the west from Purworejo to Batavia, as well as in the East from Surakarta to Surabaya. The railway stretched across the middle of the city from west to east, so that it cut frontally the north-south sacred axis. As the impact of the construction of this railway, the development of the city was no longer following the north-south axis. Development of a new colonial housing complex in southeast of Yogyakarta Palace in the early 20th century, for example, cannot be separated from the existence of this railway. The existence of a railway station near this colonial housing has enabled it to be very close to the transit area of human and goods to and from major cities outside of Yogyakarta. The placement of the new town is based on economic considerations, and nothing to do with the principle of north-south sacred axis of the city of Yogyakarta. 2.4. Javanese Architecture Basically, Javanese architecture is divided into two categories: classical and traditional. Classical Javanese architecture is influenced by Indian architecture. It had developed since the seventh century and achieved its culmination in the ninth century. Most of its masterpiece works were Hinduism and Buddhism religious buildings and they were stone structure. Prambanan and Borobudur temple in Central Java are two examples that manifest the perfection of classical Javanese architecture. The classical 20 Javanese architecture existed until the fourteenth century, and it was over together with the end of Hindu-Buddhism era in Java. Javanese traditional architecture is rooted from the autonomous local architecture. It was shaped based on the adaptation to the local climate and material sources. Java Island lays at the wet tropical climate which is characterized by the high volume of rain and the warm temperature during a year. It influences the basic shape of roof to anticipate heavy rain and the structure of partition to accommodate warm temperature. In Hindu-Buddhism era, Javanese traditional architecture had been developed by the inclusion of religious philosophies into building form and structure. Forms were no longer just follow functions but also to follow symbolic meanings. Since Islam era in around the fifteenth century, Javanese traditional architecture had developed progressively to achieve its perfection. Unlike the classical Javanese architecture which is dominated by stone structure, the Javanese traditional architecture is dominated by wooden structure. During the Islamic era, Javanese traditional architecture replaced the role of classical Javanese architecture for both public buildings including mosques and royal palaces, and private building including manor and commoner houses. In this era, the influence of Chinese architecture occurred. Similarity in the structure of building and construction system allowed Javanese architecture to get influence from Chinese architecture. In its history, some building experts, especially for the wooden building, came from China. For example, Bangsal Pangrawit, a hall in Yogyakarta Sultanate Palace, was built hiring experts from China. There are three most common typologies of Javanese traditional architecture based on the roof shape: joglo, limasan, and kampong. Joglo architecture has the most 21 complicated and sophisticated roof construction and technique comparing to the two other typologies. These three architectures functioned as public or private building. As public building they functioned as meeting hall, and as private building they functioned as house. Joglo architecture was used as the model for nobilities’ house, limasan architecture was for royal officials’ house, and kompong architecture was for common people’s house. Figure 9: Joglo, limasan, and kampong building typology (UNESCO, 2007) Javanese traditional architecture consists of one story with the basic shape of a square or rectangle. A Javanese architecture that functioned as a house divided into two parts: main house and additional/auxiliary house. The main house consists of11: • Pendapa, an open building with no walls supported by four main columns (saka guru). It is used for “public” activities such as receiving guests. The pendapa is located in the front most part of the house and can be seen from outside; therefore it is usually built to impress dignitaries. • Dalem, which is located behind the pendapa, is the main building functioning as the family/living room. The dalem is divided into two parts: senthong and middle room. • Senthong consists of a row of three rooms: senthong kiwa (left), senthong tengah (middle), and senthong tengen (right). Senthong kiwa is for storing heirlooms and weapons. Senthong tengah (also called petanen, pasren, or krobongan) is a 11 UNESCO, 2007:43 22 sanctified room to honor Dewi Sri, the goddess of prosperity. Senthong tengen is used as a bedroom. • Pringgitan is situated between the pendapa and dalem. The pringgitan is used especially to hold leather puppet performance. Figure 10: Rooms division in Javanese traditional house (UNESCO, 2007) Additional buildings consist of: • Gandok is the building to the left and right side of the dalem. The left-side gandok (gandok kiwa) is used as male bedroom, while the right-side (gandok tengen) is used as female bedrooms. There is also an open yard between the gandok and dalem which is useful to keep the house comfortable. 23 • Gadri is the building behind the dalem usually used as a dining room. The gadri can be accessed from the back doors of the left or right senthongs. The gadri is a semi open building and is similar in shape to a porch. • Pekiwan and pawon is the service area which is located in the back part of the house complex. The pekiwan is a bath room and the pawon is a kitchen. A well can also be found nearby the kitchen and the bathroom. 2.5. Religious Architecture in Java Since Javanese life was directed by the agricultural culture, Javanese architecture was formed based on the living requirements of peasantry. Places for living and worship were the main requirements for peasantry society. Koentjaraningrat (1985) describes the Javanese original genuine house of the average peasant family based on their physically features as follows: The original genuine griya (house) of the average peasant family used to be a rectangular structure measuring about 8 x 10 meters and made of wood pillars and crossbeams, of which the front is the length of the rectangle. The walls are made of gedeg (plaited bamboo), where often even a small window is absent. There are sliding bamboo doors at the front and the rear of the house, and easily removable plaited bamboo partitions divide the interior into a number of rooms. The floor is of jogan (packed dirt), and there is a peaked roof, consisting of several layers of dried coconut leaves (blegketepeng).12 Related to the requirement for worship, Javanese considered the house as a space where human being and the spirit of ancestors or gods lived together in the same place but in two different zones: realm world and spiritual world. Thus, in every Javanese traditional house, a sacred space was equipped in the center of the house which is called senthong. It functioned as the place of the worship to the fertility goddess, Sri. On certain days Javanese held slametan, a ceremonial meal to normalize a 12 Koentjaraningrat, 1985:134 24 relationship between human being and the spirits.13 The Javanese house architecture, then, was formed based on those cosmological aspects.14 In the peasantry culture, unity and continuity are the purposes of every living aspect. Niels Mulder (2005) described this Javanese character thus: Unity and order mean peacefulness, quiet continuity, mastery, success and well-being, a moral way of life, that all seem to be threatened by the chaotic forces of non-domesticated nature, the untamed drives and desire of the individual, and the lure of the spirit world.15 Thus, gathering among family and relatives has become an important aspect to maintain the unity and continuity. Later, the “gathering” has had a wide meaning. When outer cultures came to Java, they were gathered in order to maintain the unity and continuity with the former culture. By this manner, all foreign cultures which came to Java - Hinduism and Buddhism, Chinese, Islamic, and European cultures – were absorbed into the Javanese culture. In architecture, the absorption process can be divided into four steps: transplantation, adaptation, accommodation, and hybridization.16 In the transplantation process, a foreign building type was erected by copying its original model. Differences of climatic factors resulted an environmental disharmonious. Therefore, in the adaptation process, a foreign building type was adapted to the local environmental factor. Continuous contacts with the local culture encouraged an accommodation of the local architecture. Local architectural forms and principles were accommodated into the latecomer architecture. When experiments and efforts to create an adaptive and accommodative architecture were generated, it delivered the new hybrid architecture. 13 More detail about the meaning of the slametan, see: Beatty, 1999:24-50, Geertz, 1976:11-15, Koentajaraningrat, 1985:345-352 14 More detail about a relationship between the form of the Javanese architecture and its cosmology, see: Tjahjono, 1991, Prijotomo, 1984 15 Mulder, 2005:103 16 Widodo, 2006:17-23 25 Figure 11: Sequence of the Javanese architectural culture (author, 2009) Following the characteristic of peasantry culture, religious architecture in Java is characterized by the absorbance of former religious architectural elements in the new ones. Based on this characteristic, the reading of religious architecture in Java should be analyzed by a multilayer perspective as follows: Figure 12: Timeline chart of the religious architecture in Java (Author, 2009, referring Johannes Widodo & Yolanda David Reyes, 2006) During pre-history, when almost no alien architectural cultures had influenced Java, the veneration buildings were created vernacularly. Since Hinduism and Buddhism came to Java, Indian architectural culture has influenced Java. 26 Nevertheless, later this new architectural culture was developed by adding some local versions and variations, so it did not merely become a copy. When Islam came, Java has been deeply influenced by Hinduism and Buddhism. Therefore, to be acceptable by Javanese, Islam took some Hindu building types to be Islamized. For examples, Hindu shrine was employed as a minaret by putting a drum in its top, and mandala joglo was employed as a mosque model by putting a pulpit in one of the borders and turning the orientation to the west to face Mecca. Chinese architectural culture came to Java in the same time with the coming of Islam. The early Chinese religious building adapted to Islam since some of its buildings basically was functioned as the mosque. Christianity came to Java together with the western colonization. In the beginning, Christian in Java was a religion only for European. Therefore, no local architectural elements influenced its church architecture. Nevertheless, since mission for Javanese started, the church architecture has begun to adapt itself to the local architectural cultures. 2.6. New Dutch-Indies Architecture and Indonesian Modern Architecture Since Dutch colonial government applied “ethic policy”17 to the Dutch-Indies in the early 1900s, many new infrastructures were built. Consequently, architects and engineers had a significant role for contributions. Learning from the failures of colonial architecture in the past, they were challenged to formulate new ideas for the new Dutch-Indies architecture. Formerly, colonial architecture had been delivered as the copies of European architecture. Humid air, high temperature, and rapid rainfall were the environmental characteristic of Dutch-Indies as a tropical country. This 17 Ethic policy was a colonial policy to develop Dutch-Indies and Indonesian people to be autonomous and progress. Netherlands parliament urged its government to apply this policy for Dutch-Indies as an ethical action since they realized the contribution of Indonesian people for the prosperity of the Netherlands during “cultuurstelsel” (agriculture system policy, 1830-1870). By cultuurstelsel, the Dutch-Indies government and Netherlands gained surplus income from agriculture export. 27 condition had decayed European architecture faster, and it had raised the maintenance cost. Besides, the height and the openness of the façade of European architecture had become the trap for sunshine to heat the interior of the building. Hot temperature and humid air had created discomfort and unhealthy interior. Ideas to adapt architecture to the local condition in Dutch-Indies were urgent. Many conceptions were proposed by architects and engineers as follows: No pictures are available Figure 13: Variation of the New Dutch-Indies architectural conceptions (author, 2009) By the above analytical figure, it can be inferred that basically ideas for the new Dutch-Indies architectural conception are divisible into two groups: neovernacular and pro-modern. Henri Maclaine Pont and Herman Thomas Karsten were the pioneers for the first group. Both of them were in awe of the Indonesian traditional architecture. They had studied it seriously before they improved modern architecture in it. Therefore, this group put indigenous architecture as the base, and modernity as 28 the supplement. For their ideas, they proposed the term “Indo-European” as the architectural movement. The other pioneers tend to be the second group. For them, modernity was the base, while the most important of the local factors was climate, not indigenous architectural form or style; therefore, modernity with climatic adaptation was the answer for the new Dutch-Indies architecture. C.P. Wolf Schoemaker was a modernist who had contradictory opinion to H.M. Pont. Their debate on the Indo-European topic has been discussed in Indische Bouwkundig Tjidschrift Magazine in 1920s. In this case - referring to the opinion of Henri Petrus Berlage, a Dutch modern architect figure who visited Dutch Indies in 1923 – Pont’s opinion was supported by Berlage’s opinion. The following was the pronouncement of Berlage after his visit to the Dutch Indies, cited from Akihary (1990): "We probably can propose - while we are pursuing the better understanding that an Indo-European Style can only arise from a synthesis of the Western construction system and the Eastern art form; therefore, the Javanese pendopo as an original building, should be further developed. We can take an illustration that it is a possibility to find a Greek temple in a wooden structure version. A real Indo-European architecture can be developed if the occupation of architects is on the Javanese’s hand, and they are also educated by an architectural training utterly in Dutch Indies (..) since the suitable form for Indo-European style, in this case Javanese art, can’t be found in Europe. Therefore, that such form should be revitalized first, and later the construction and the art form can be harmonized as the final goal of the style. That development, in which the Javanese presupposes to become an autonomous architect, will occur parallel with the efforts to reach the autonomy of the Dutch Indies”.18 Nineteen years after the visit of Berlage, the new Dutch Indies architecture aspiration ended along with the coming of Japan to Indonesia in 1942. After Indonesian independence in 1945, this aspiration has never come up again. Nevertheless, the searching for Indonesian architecture continues. 18 Akihary, 1990:42 29 2.7. Catholic Church in Indonesian Archipelago Some evidences revealed that Catholicism has existed in Indonesian Archipelago since the seventh century. The researcher, Jan Bakker, SJ, found the existence of some churches in Fansur, near Baros, Central Tapanuli, Sumatra, in his archival study. The oldest archive that described the coming of Catholic Church in Indonesian Archipelago was written by Syeik Abu Salih al-Amini, a Moslem historian who lived in around 1150. He listed 707 Christian Churches and 181 retreats in Egypt, Nubia, Abessinia, West Africa, Spain, Arab, India, and Indonesia. The list describes the founding years, building drawings, and historical information of the churches. Related to churches in Indonesian Archipelago, al-Amini wrote that there were some churches in Fansur, Sumatra which were part of Nestorian Church. One of them named the Virgin Mary Church. This church was established in around 645. Another document stated that in the thirteenth century there were some bishoprics in Sumatra and Java. The Abhd’ Isho, an archive of Syrian Church (1291-1319), included a list of bishoprics in Asia, and one of them was bishopric of Dabhagh which covered Sumatra and Java. Two Franciscans, Odoricus from Pordenone and Bishop Johannes van Marignolle, visited parishioners in Sumatra in 1323 and 1346. They were delegation of the Pope for their courtesy visit to Beijing.19 Catholic missions by Europeans in Indonesia which were led by Spanish and Portuguese occurred 450 years ago in Moluccas. Their missions delivered significant results. By the end of the 16th century there were 30.000 Catholics in Moluccas. Portuguese mission in Flores Island was also gaining ground, and in the beginning of the seventeenth century there were 50.000 Catholics in this island.20 Francis Xavier, one of the Jesuit Catholic order founders, carried out a mission to the Moluccas 19 20 See: Boelaars, 2005:59-62 and Muskens, vol. 1, 1974:19-40 See: Hardawiryana, 2001:59 and Muskens, vol. 1, 1974 30 including Ambon Island, Ternate Island, Halmahera Island, and Molotai Island from 1546 until 1547. During the mission he wrote a simple preacher book in Malay, opened schools for indigents, and with his gentle personality he could sympathize thousands people, teach and baptize them.21 Similar to his colleagues in India and China, he taught Gospel by adapting local customs and performances.22 Sixteen years after Xavier’s mission in Moluccas, some Dominicans came to continue the mission in Solor Island, and there they built monastery, churches, and started to open seminary high school.23 During the eight year war against Spain (1568-1648), Dutch found their way to the colony of Spain-Portugal in South East Asia. In 1602 they established a trading association named “Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie” (VOC). Ambon ruined by VOC in 1605, and from Mollucas, the Dutch fleet leader, Jan Pieterszoon Coen sailed to Java to subjugate Portuguese, English and local kings until 1619. He won the wars and established a government capital in Batavia, or now Jakarta. An old motto declares, cuius region, illius et religio, or “whoever occupy a region, they will be in command to direct the religion”. VOC forbade all Catholic missions in its region along with the enjoinment of Catholicism in Netherlands. VOC era was the dark ages for Catholicism in Indonesia. French revolution in 1789 and later the fusion of Netherlands into the authority of French gave a new direction to the Netherlands colonies. Because of bankruptcy, in December 1799 VOC was liquidated, and in 1808 H.W. Daendles was appointed to be the General Governor (1808-1811) in Dutch-Indies to represent the Napoleon authority. Manifesting Napoleon’s principles of freedom, equality, and 21 See: Boelaars, 2005:64 See: Yogyakarta SJ Kolsani Community, 2006:8 23 See: Boelaars, 2005:65 22 31 brotherhood, he freed all people in Indonesia to express their faiths. A new chapter to carry on the Catholic mission in Indonesian Archipelago started. In April 4, 1808, two pioneer missionaries, Priest Nellisen and Lambertus Prinssen arrived in Batavia. In May they received a barrack which was set to be a room of worship, and a house to be a parish house. This is the beginning of a reconstruction after the long suspended animation of Catholic mission in Indonesian Archipelago. In February 2, 1810 HM Daendles donated a chapel which had been built by Cornelis Chasteleijn in about 1714 for a Protestant Church. When Du Bus de Gisignies, a Catholic, was the General Commissioner (1825-1830), he appointed Ir. Tromp to design a new church. He finished the design even though it was never been built. The design was a cruciform shape building 33 x 17 meters with a combination style of baroque-gothic-classicism. April 9, 1890 the old church collapsed. Priest Antonius Dijkmans, SJ was entrusted to design the new church which is now known as the Jakarta Cathedral. He designed this cathedral with neo-gothic style. Some history books noted that he had taken a course with Violet-le-Duc, a famous French neo-gothic architect, and Cuypers in Netherlands. The success of the Jakarta Cathedral design stimulated the erection of some similar types in some other cities including: Surabaya, Menado, Magelang (1900), Sukabumi (1902), Mendut, Tomohon (1903), Bogor, Salatiga, Medan, Koting (1905), Malang (1906), Lela (1907), Muntilan, Candi Semarang (1915), and Solo (1916).24 24 Kurris, 1992:160 32 Figure 14: Neo-gothic churches in Jakarta, Surabaya and Malang (www.apakabarindonesia.com, 10/23/2009, author, and Farisa, 2008) Since Daendles era until the erection of the Jakarta Cathedral in 1900s, general characteristics of the churches were neo-Gothic or European Classic, especially Empire Style, to follow their patron, Napoleon, who was obsessed by the glory of ancient Roman architecture. These can also be connected to some other facts as follows: (1) Some buildings were the bequest from the rich Europeans who were sympathetic to Catholicism. Consequently, the building models depended on the former ones. (2) Besides, it relates to the parishioners who were serviced. Based on data, in 1890 the composition of the Catholics in Java was 20,335 European and only 132 Indonesian.25 Presumably, Catholic Church until the beginning of 1900’s, especially in Java, were totally European church. From 1808 until 1900’s Catholic Church in Dutch-Indies focused on the consolidation among its former parishioners; and in Java, those parishioners were identical with European. Nevertheless, since early 1900’s Catholic Church started to widen its mission for indigenous people. Java and Sumatra have become new important targets since the response of local people was enthusiastic. This fact could not disregard from efforts of the missionaries to adapt Catholicism to local cultures. 25 Muskens, 1974, cited by Boelaars, 2005:84 33 Japanese occupation period (1942-1945) was the second dark ages for Catholic mission in Indonesia. European mission was forbidden, many churches were seized by Japanese military, and most of European priests and parishioners were put into internments. On the one hand this is a setback, but on the other hand this is a challenge for local priests and parishioners to be autonomous. Church life activities which were previously led and run by European missionaries and parishioners had to be replaced by local priests and parishioners. This situation gave advantage to the maturation of the local priests and parishioners to face the challenges ahead. After the Japanese occupation, in 1945 Indonesia achieved its independence. Autonomy during the Japanese occupation period had enabled local priests and parishioners to replace the existence of European priests and parishioners in the period of Indonesian independence. Since this period, indigenization has become a necessity; and in architecture, many new churches were erected by experimenting local forms. In Batak, Sumatra, some churches in Kabanjahe and Sidikalang were built with Bataknese house roofing style. In Bali the pattern of Hinduism temple was employed as ideas for the churches which were built in Palasari, Singaraja, Tuka, Tabanan and Monang-Maning. In Flores, churches in Pagal and Lengko Ajang were built by following the character of a local sacred house. In Sumba the same idea was also applied in a church in Waimangura. In Cigugur, West Java, a church with Sundanese Palace style was built. In Yogyakarta, Central Java, a church with a kampong house idea was built in Brayat Minulyo. The same ideas also emerged in Tayu, Pati, Central Java, and in Celaket, Malang, East Java.26 26 See: Boelaars, 2005:415 34 Figure 15: Churches with local forms in Sidikalang and Tuka (Sidikalang Parish and Irene, 2008) Figure 16: Timeline chart of Catholic Church in Indonesia (author, 2009) The movements which directed to inculturation in Indonesia after independence could not be separated from the Second Vatican Council. During and after the Council, Indonesian bishops met in Rome and Indonesia once a year. In the two meetings in 1966 and 1968, they discussed the implementation of the Second Vatican Council for Indonesia related to liturgy, the translation of Gospel, 35 ecumenical, etc. Nevertheless, in a local council (MAWI) in November 1970, they produced the first document titled “Indonesianization”. One of its contents declared: ‘It is urgent that the Church should be really rooted and grown in the society of Indonesia and also clearly reflected the character of Indonesia’.27 27 Spektrum, 1:3, 1971:123 in Boelaars, 2005:43 36 CHAPTER 3 DEVELOPMENT OF THE THREE CHURCHES Three churches are chosen as a case study. Those are the Ganjuran, the Klaten, and the Somohitan Church. They are chosen with a consideration that each of them has unique characteristics related to architectural inculturation, after all, they have similarity in using Javanese architectural culture as the basic idea to shape their church architecture. Besides, they all have been renovated for several times since their first establishments. Figure 17: Map of the Chosen Churches (author, 2010) The Ganjuran church employs Javanese classical architecture of HinduBuddhism stone temple and later combining with an idea of ‘Bangsal Kencana’ (main pavilion) of Yogyakarta Sultanate Palace. The Klaten church employs spatial arrangement principles of the Javanese traditional house that is adapted to the new functions and improvements in the form and building construction. The Somohitan church used to employ an idea of ‘Bangsal Witana’ (pavilion for inaugurations) of Yogyakarta Sultanate Palace, and after the last renovation it employs an idea of ‘Pendapa Saka Tunggal’ (single pillar hall) of Javanese traditional architecture with modern improvements on form, function, and construction. 37 3.1. The Ganjuran Church The Ganjuran Church, completely named the Sacred Heart of Jesus of Ganjuran Church, is located in Bantul District of Yogyakarta Province. This church was founded in 1924 by two Dutch relatives, Joseph Schmutzer and Julius Schemutzer. Figure 18: Site of the Ganjuran Church complex (author, 2009, referring Digital Globe, 2009) 38 This church is claimed as the first and the only church in Indonesia which was established by the spirit of Rorum Novarum, a Papal teaching which teaches social justice and prosperity for the poor. Pope Leo XIII established this encyclical in 1891 as the reaction to the negative impacts of industrial revolution and capitalism. This Papal teaching influenced Joseph and Julius Schemutzer since they had become Catholic student activists during their study in Delft Polytechnic. After graduation, Julius Schemutzer came back to Dutch-Indies and ran his family sugar factory in Ganjuran village, namely Gondang Lipuro Sugar Factory. Inspired by Rorum Novarum and supported by his brother, Julius Schemutzer applied a better salary system for his employees and put them as partners. For social responsibility, he also opened a hospital, schools and an orphanage. As a result, many of his employees were interested in joining Catholicism; and to fulfill the need of mass celebration for the new parishioners, he established a chapel – later become a church – in his land. A global economy crisis stroke Dutch-Indies in the late 1920’s. However, Gondang Lipuro Sugar Factory was safe, even gained success during the crisis. As a loyal Catholic and an adorer of the Sacred Heart of Jesus, Julius Schemutzer believed that his success was due to the protection of the Sacred Heart of Jesus. To thank God, he built a monument of Jesus Sacred Heart in the backyard of the church in 19271930. At that time, Jesus Sacred Heart Monuments were common to be built by Catholics in Netherlands. Nevertheless, it was the first and the only monument which has ever been built in Java. Therefore, to support his idea, Batavia Bishop Mgr. van Velken appointed this monument to become the national monument to symbolize that Java has been dedicated to the Sacred Heart of Jesus. By the above history it can be inferred that under Julius Schemutzer, the Ganjuran Church complex contained five building elements: hospital, school, orphanage, church and monument. 39 Figure 19: Exterior and interior of the early Ganjuran church (courtesy of the Ganjuran Parish Secretariat) Figure 20: A Mass in front of the Monument of the Sacred Heart of Jesus (courtesy of the Ganjuran Parish Secretariat) Based on the Parish photographs, field inspections, and interviews with local parishioners by the author during survey from May until July 2009, it can be illustrated that situation in the site of the Ganjuran Church complex under Julius Schemutzer was as follows: 40 41 Figure 21: First phase of the development of the Ganjuran Church complex (author, 2009) After Indonesian independence in 1945 until the Second Vatican Council in 1962-1965, the Ganjuran Church had become an autonomous parish. All Schemutzer legacies were kept by local parishioners and priests. Some additional buildings were established step by step to adjust the increasing numbers of parishioner and their activities. Related to the Second Vatican Council, in liturgy, many local elements including Javanese language, gamelan music instrument, folk songs, traditional dances and rituals were evolved to enrich the Mass celebrations in the Ganjuran Church. Until an economy crisis in 1998, the Ganjuran Church had only been known as a traditional parish. Nevertheless, since 1998, many people from many cities in Indonesia started to recognize the Ganjuran Church as a pilgrimage destination because they believed some miracles that appeared there. The discovery of a water fountain underneath of the Jesus Sacred Heart Monument in 1998 and prayer services that were believed can cure illness have attracted visitors to come to the Ganjuran Church. In the same time, 15 sacrifice route stops were built surround the monument. By this development, the Jesus Sacred Heart Monument had transformed from just a monument to become a sacred place for devotional activities. Situation in the site of the Ganjuran Church complex in this phase could be illustrated as follows: 42 43 Figure 22: Second phase of the development of the Ganjuran Church complex (author, 2009) In May, 27th, 2006, when a 5.9 Mw earthquake stroke Yogyakarta, façade of the church building collapsed. A temporary church was established in the yard in front of the monument. Figure 23: Exterior and interior of the temporary church (author, 2009) 44 Figure 24: Façade of the early Ganjuran church after earthquake (courtesy of the Ganjuran Parish Secretariat) Later a new permanent church and a parish hall were established on the former site; on the other hand, timber material of the former church was used to establish a same form church in Ngirengireng village. The new church establishment finished in August 2009. Therefore, recent situation in the site of the Ganjuran Church complex could be illustrated as follows: Figure 25: Exterior and interior of the recent Ganjuran church (author, 2009) 45 46 Figure 26: Third phase of the development of the Ganjuran Church complex (author, 2009) The above explanations and illustrations show that since its establishment in 1924, the Ganjuran Church complex has developed progressively. Many new buildings have completed or replaced the old buildings. Therefore, building typologies at the Ganjuran Church can be compiled based on the three phases as follows: Figure 27: Compilation of the building typologies at the Ganjuran Church (author, 2009) The beginning of the first phase (1924-1934) is a period when Julius Schemutzer was handling Gondang Lipuro Sugar Factory. All the buildings in this phase were also built under his command. For the church, parish house, hospital, orphanage, and school buildings, he appointed architect J.H. van Oyen, B.N.A to design them. This church was his first church design project before he designed the other churches in Java: the Sacred Heart of Jesus of Pugeran Church (1934), the St. Joseph of Bintaran Church (1934), and the Semarang Cathedral (1937). In general, van Oyen’s design is characterized by the adaptation of social and environmental 47 context. On the other hand, he tended to modernize the design with technological improvements, for example, the use of concrete and steel construction. Those were the way van Oyen implemented the new Dutch Indies architecture principles. For the church at Ganjuran, he minimized those technological improvements by employing timber construction. Concrete construction was applied in parish house, hospital and orphanage building. Whereas, adaptation to the social and environmental context for the last three buildings was applied in the form of building which adopted kampong and limasan typology. The Sacred Heart of Jesus Monument was the most unique building in the Ganjuran Church complex. Julius Schemutzer himself designed it by studying models of Hindu temples in Java, especially Prambanan Temple. For the Jesus Sacred Heart statue in Javanese-Hinduism style which was laid in the center of the monument and the other statues which were laid in the church altar, he employed two Sundanese artists and a Chinese artist. During the second phase, many new buildings had been established to complete the former ones. Nevertheless, identity of the architects was unknown. Most of the buildings were built by local craftsmen and followed the former models. Parish Hall and Gamelan House had different character comparing to the others. Basically, their typology was same as the former buildings, limasan. Nevertheless, they were different in the construction and the wall treatment. The former limasan buildings employed concrete construction and plastered brick wall, while these two buildings employed timber construction and bamboo plaited mat. In the third phase, a temporary and four permanent buildings were built. The temporary building was functioned as a church while the permanent church was being built. It was made by bamboo construction and was built spontaneously by local parishioners employing kampong type. The permanent church was briefly designed 48 by an architect team from Atmajaya Catholic University of Yogyakarta. A parish priest, Gregorius Utomo, Pr, ordered to employ Bangsal Kencana (primary hall) of Yogyakarta Sultanate Palace as the idea for the new church. Referring to his opinion, the employment of Bangsal Kencana was to deliver an imagination of the God’s Palace from Javanese point of view. The other buildings were designed by following the former buildings at The Ganjuran Church complex which was based on kampong and limasan types. By compiling all building typologies based on the chronological phases, it could be revealed that there are some typologies in each phase, and there are some similarities between building typologies in a phase to those in the other phase. 3.2. The Klaten Church The Klaten Church, completely named the Santa Maria Assumpta of Klaten Church, is located in Klaten District of Central Java Province, near Surakarta City. Catholicism in Klaten began when Priest F.J. van Lith, SJ, came to Klaten in around 1909 to invite young people to study at Muntilan Kweekschool, his teacher training college in Muntilan District of Central Java. Several people were interested in his invitation. During their study, some of them joined Catholicism. When they came back to Klaten, they socialized Catholicism to their family and neighborhood. Since 1915, when a parishioners group in Klaten was formed, Priest C. Stiphout, SJ from Ambarawa District of Central Java came to Klaten once in three months to celebrate Mass. Since 1920, Priest HJ. Jansen, SJ from Surakarta continued his work, and since 1921, Priest Henricus van Driesche, SJ from Yogyakarta also did the same. 49 Figure 28: Site of the Klaten Church complex (author, 2010 referring Digital Globe, 2009) As van Lith believed, social services, especially education, was effective to socialize Catholicism for Javanese. For this purpose, he initiated to establish a Hollands Inlandse School - an elementary school for indigenous people – in Klaten in 1920. Since this school was founded, the number of parishioners in Klaten increased significantly. To fulfill the need of place for Mass celebration, a new church was established near the school in 1922. A parish house was also established near the church. 50 Based on Parish photographs and field inspections by the author during survey on April to June 2010, it could be illustrated that situation at the site of this Church complex in this period was as follows: Figure 29: First phase of the development of the Klaten Church complex (author, 2010) 51 Figure 30: The early Klaten church (courtesy of the Klaten Parish Secretariat) When the Japanese army came to Klaten in 1942, the school and church were closed and the parish priest, B. Hagdoren, SJ, was imprisoned. In the early Indonesian independence, when the Dutch army arrived to retake Indonesia as their colony, the church was occupied and the school was functioned as a Dutch’s military barrack in 1948. After the Netherlands gave recognition of Indonesian sovereignty, the Dutch army has leaved Klaten in 1949 and the church and school were opened again. During Indonesian independence, parishioners in Klaten continued to increase rapidly. The existence of a Catholic school in this church complex was still important for Catholic mission. Since the old church could no longer accommodate the number of parishioners, a new church needed to be established. The Semarang Archbishop, Cardinal Darmoyuwono, SJ, appointed YB. Mangunwijaya, Pr, a priest who had just finished an architectural study in Germany, to design the new church. During his study in Europe, he made a contact with the delegation of Indonesian bishoprics in the Second Vatican Council so that he joined witnessed a change just happened in Catholicism related to the spirit of openness or “angiornamento”. After returning to 52 Indonesia and to completing the design of this church, Mangunwijaya brought angiornamento into his design28. In 1968, the old church was torn downed and a new church was built thereon. No other significant improvements had been made since the renovation in 1968 until recently. Based on field inspections and measurements by the author during survey from April to June 2010, it could be illustrated that recent situation at the site of this church complex is as follows29: Figure 31: Second phase of the development of the Klaten Church complex (author, 2010) 28 Based on a story told by the architect before he was gone in 1998, during the design process he used to be asked by the parish priest related to the distinctive form of the design and he convinced that it was not because of him but due to the spirit of angiornamento. 29 A new parish hall has been being built during the survey. This research ignores this building since the establishment is progressing. 53 The above explanations and illustrations show that since its establishment in 1922, the Klaten Church complex had changed significantly once in 1968 when a new church was established to accommodate the increase of parishioner numbers. The period of change was special since it happened when the Second Vatican Council had just finished, and the architect himself witnessed the council and inspired by angiornamento. Figure 32: Exterior and interior landscape of the recent Klaten Church (author, 2010) As can be seen at the above chronological explanation, building typologies of the Klaten Church complex can be compiled based on those two phases as follows: 54 Figure 33: Compilation of the building typologies at the Klaten Church (author, 2010) There were three buildings established in the first phase: a school, a church, and a parish house. As they were founded in the colonial period, the design would had been affected by the spirit of the times at that time. According to the history of architecture in Indonesia, in the early twentieth century, a period in which the buildings were founded, in the Dutch colonial architecture had emerged the awareness to adjust to the climate and local architectural culture. This awareness had led to what was called the new Dutch Indies architectural movement. Based on the thought above, these three colonial buildings could be found their equivalent to the local architecture. Seen from the trapezoid roof shape, the school and the parish house were equivalent to the Javanese traditional house of limasan. However, they were different in the building structure which supports the roofs. Traditionally, the basic structure of limasan house is combination of wooden beams and columns to form a frame structure. In these two buildings, the wooden structure is combined or replaced by 55 concrete or plastered brick structure. Besides, traditional limasan is covered by a partition wall made by wood or bamboo matting. Since the use of brick walls on the two buildings is permanent, flexibility of the building functions is lost. The church, though the form of roof was similar to the kampong house, but when viewed from the ground plan it was more appropriate form with the basilica. This assessment related to the function of the building as a church. Although building functions could be ignored in a typological analysis, the consideration of functions in the context of the history was important when it came up an ambiguity of form as has happened in this church building. In the second phase, the new church was the only building which was designed with significant improvements comparing to the older buildings. The architect, Mangunwijaya, designed this church following the philosophy of Javanese house, but then he looked at its accordance to the Gospels. For the idea of Javanese house itself, he applied the joglo house spatial arrangement, but he combined it with kampong house idea for the roof form to perform modesty. Finally, he constructed the building based on concrete structure. 3.3. The Somohitan Church The Somohitan Church, completely named the St. John the Apostle of Somohitan Church, is located on the southern slope of Merapi volcano in Sleman District of Yogyakarta Province. The existence of Catholicism in the Somohitan village and surroundings related to the coming back of some villagers who became catechists since they had studied at a Catholic kweekschool (teacher training college) in Muntilan, Central Java. By their efforts, since 1928, Java mission rented a villa in the Somohitan village owned by a Japanese namely Sawabe for catechumen. Somohitan villagers called the villa ‘loji’, a nickname for Dutch colonial mansion. 56 Since the rapid growth of early parishioners in the Somohitan village, a new church building was built on an area opposite to the loji in 1930. Figure 34: Site of the Somohitan Church complex (author, 2010, referring Digital Globe, 2009) Based on the Parish photographs, illustrations in a journal written by H. Caminada, SJ (1929), and field inspections by the author during survey from January until March 2010, it could be illustrated that situation at the site of the Somohitan Church complex in the early period of Catholic mission was as follows: 57 Figure 35: First phase of the development of the Somohitan Church complex (author, 2010) 58 Figure 36: The early Somohitan church (courtesy of the Somohitan Parish Secretariat) Figure 37: An illustration by H. Caminada, SJ. (St. Cleverbond, 1929) 59 Figure 38: Illustration details by H. Caminada, SJ (St. Cleverbond, 1929) 60 During the Japanese occupancy (1942-1945), the growth of Catholics in the Somohitan village was stagnant; and when Indonesian revolution for independence (1945-1949) occurred in 1948 some people broke and burned the church. Later a speculative opinion declared that the reason of the burning was to anticipate the coming of the Dutch Army to occupy the church for military barrack. Nevertheless, another more introspective opinion argued that the accident was indicating the failure of the Church in maintaining a good relationship with its neighborhood. After that accident, the ruin of the church had never been renovated significantly for some years until a Dutch priest namely Rutten, SJ had the duty of leading Somohitan parishioners since 1970 to 1975. Low economic income of Somohitan parishioners was the reason for their disability to renovate the church significantly. To improve the parishioners’ welfare and to build a better relationship with the neighborhood, Priest Rutten initiated the development of apple and clove plantation and built new water channels for the villagers. Beside to empower parishioners, it was a social capital to build a community trust to the existence of the Church. By this social capital, Priest Rutten led the renovation of the church building. Based on Parish photographs and field inspections by the author during survey from January until March 2010, it could be illustrated that situation at the site of the Somohitan Church complex since the Priest Rutten’s period was as follows: 61 Figure 39: Second phase of the development of the Somohitan Church complex (author, 2010) 62 Figure 40: Site of the second Somohitan church (courtesy of the Somohitan Parish Secretariat) Figure 41: Façade of the second Somohitan church (courtesy of the Somohitan Parish Secretariat) 63 For about thirty years after the leadership of Priest Rutten, no significant architectural developments occurred in the Somohitan Church. Since Y. Suyatno Hadiatmaja, Pr was appointed to become the parish priest in 2004, a second significant architectural renovation executed. Continuing his predecessor, Priest Yatno realizes that social capital is very important to be maintained and to be developed. His learning for 13 years from his senior, Priest Mangunwijaya, as a volunteer for Priest Mangunwijaya’s social projects to assist marginal communities in Kedung Ombo, Central Java since 1986 had performed his character as a priest who was responsive to social life aspects. Economic development for local society was programmed including: goat and lobster husbandries, organic rice agriculture, and organic fertilizer production. Besides, new water cannels installation, kampong path construction, reforestation, and establishment of volcano disaster post are the concrete role of the Church to develop social responsibility. Participation of the Church in a yearly traditional ritual of ‘merti bumi’, a ritual to respect the nature, was another way to maintain a good relationship with the society. In architecture, an innovation was created by the establishment of a cultural hall instead of a parish hall. Priest Yatno realized that interaction between Church and society in economic and social works was as important as communication in dialogue forums. Therefore, to facilitate the forums the Church needs a space for meeting. To fulfill it, Priest Yatno initiated to build a hall which later named ‘cultural hall’. Using this building, not only parishioners but also other society groups can hold forums in the Somohitan Church complex. The spirit of openness of the Second Vatican Council started to grow in the Somohitan Church, and it was architecturally remarked by the establishment of this hall. The site of the cultural hall was laid on the southern part of the parish house yard. It contained one meeting room building and two lodge 64 buildings. Interfaith forums and retreats by various religious communities were usually held in this hall. Based on the field inspections and measurements by the author during survey from January until March 2010, it could be illustrated that recent situation at the site of cultural hall was as follows: Figure 42: Situation at the site of the Somohitan cultural hall (author, 2010) In 2007, Somohitan Church started to plan a renovation since the capacity the former church had not been adequate to accommodate the number of recent parishioners. By the above social capital, supports for the church renovation came not only from the parishioners but also from the other faith communities. For the design, the building committee appointed an architect team from Atmajaya Catholic University of Yogyakarta to give assistance. Based on Parish archives, architect team data, and field inspections by the author during survey from January until March 2010, it could be illustrated that situation at the site of the Somohitan Church complex after the last renovation was as follows: 65 Figure 43: Third phase of the development of the Somohitan Church complex (author, 2010) 66 Figure 44: Façade of the new Somohitan church (author, 2010) The above explanations and illustrations show that since its establishment in 1930, the Somohitan Church complex had developed dynamically. An unforgettable breaking and burning accident in 1948 brought the Church into a new awareness to the importance of social interaction and communication with its society to achieve trust and existence. As could be seen in the above chronological explanation, building typologies in the Somohitan Church complex could be compiled based on those three phases as follows: 67 Figure 45: Compilation of the building typologies at the Somohitan Church (author, 2010) In its early establishment, the Somohitan Church used a villa for catechumen. Based on the characteristic of its roof, this villa followed the typology of limasan traditional house. The structure of this building was combination between timber roofing construction and bearing wall construction. The difference of this building compared with the traditional limasan was in the proportion of the windows which was higher and wider. Therefore, even the basic form was limasan, the big proportion of its windows had made this building identified as a Dutch colonial building, or local people call it ‘loji’. Unlike the villa, the church building had a strong character as a Javanese traditional architecture. The roof of this church was a combination between limasan and joglo tajug forms. Historically, the form of joglo tajug was adopted from wantilan, a rectangular building model for Hindu shrine. Since the era of Islam, the 68 wantilan model had been adopted to shape Javanese mosques. Therefore, the adoption of joglo tajug for this church is an adaptation to the former architectural culture. In the second phase of its development, the Somohitan church building has been renovated to follow a kampong house typology. Kampong house was a simpler typology compared with limasan or joglo, and basically it is more economical to build since the structure of roof consumes less timber. By this changing, the church building looked more modest. Undeveloped economy condition of the parishioners may have become the reason why the newer church was built simpler than the former one. In the third phase of its development, church building at Somohitan had been extended for about twice larger than the former one. However, to maintain the proximity of views between parishioners and a priest in a Mass, the layout of hexagonal shaped church with an altar in the middle. To keep interior views clear, a single pillar is laid in the center. Basically, this principle refers to a typology of Javanese traditional architecture of joglo saka tunggal (single pillared joglo). Besides church building, a cultural hall was established during this phase. It contained three interconnected buildings including a hall and two lodges. The hall performed a joglo typology and the lodges performed kampong house typology. Modern technology of timber and concrete construction were applied for these buildings. 69 CHAPTER 4 ARCHITECTURAL INCULTURATION AND TRANSFORMATION Architectural inculturation is a transformation of architecture caused by interaction between two different architectural cultures. In another words, identification of architectural transformation could be used as the tool to reveal an architectural inculturation phenomenon. In this study, ‘transformation’ itself is defined as the change of form, function, and meaning of the church architecture that is caused by intercultural interactions. The three churches as the case study have transformed their architecture during their development in the phase both before and after the Second Vatican Council. These transformations related to the process of ‘meeting’ between inner and outer architectural culture. The way they transformed could be classified in three categories including juxtaposing, superimposing, and interlocking. Each of those categories is discussed as follows: 4.1. Juxtaposing As mentioned in the theoretical review, early configuration of inculturation is openness between inner and outer culture to juxtapose each another. Therefore, both of them will stand on their own cultures while they learn to find each entry points. The early Ganjuran church, the early and the second Somohitan church could be included into this category. 70 Figure 46: Transformation of the early Ganjuran church (author, 2010 and UNESCO, 2007) The early Ganjuran church followed a European church tradition to locate the church face to face with a graveyard. It symbolizes the unity of earthly and heavenly church. Besides, the west side, where the graveyard is located, is a symbol of death, and the east, where the church is located, is a symbol of rising. 71 Based on its typology, this church followed Rome basilica. Originally, the world “basilica” was used to describe the Roman public building. It was a large roofed hall supported by colonnades in its interior. The colonnades divide interior space and give aisles or arcaded spaces at one or both sides. Besides, a basilica used to have “clerestory” - an upper level of the walls above the rooflines of the lower aisles - to give light to the inner space of a large building. Since Christianity was legalized as the Roman religion, basilica had been converted to become church model. Later in Romanesque and Gothic era, basilica was developed by adding “transept” an area set crosswise to the nave - to become cruciform building. Seen from the basic plan of the early Ganjuran church, it was also equal to the basilica plan. Extension space which crosses the axis at the rear could be comparable to the transept. Nevertheless, the colonnades were constructed by timber which directly connected to the roof as a whole structure. Therefore, the colonnades were not connected by the existence of entablature. Consequently, no clerestory could be shored up over the colonnades. Instead of that, the heightening of the upper roof was made by extending the roof timbering to create a slot along the axis for ventilation. Although the basic form of this church could be rooted from basilica, this church had been developed with innovation in its structure by employing timber construction to perform lightness and elasticity. The truth of this technical concept had been proven. When a 5.9 Mw earthquake stroke in 2006, only the brick wall façade collapsed. The combination of basilica typology which was adapted to the local environment by employing timber structure implies that the early Ganjuran church had juxtaposed basilica typology with local environmental condition. 72 Figure 47: Transformation of the early Somohitan church (author, 2010 and UNESCO, 2007) 73 Another juxtaposing transformation happened in the early Somohitan church. This church employed combination between limasan and joglo tajug typology. Both are Javanese traditional building. Traditionally, limasan is a model for profane buildings. Otherwise, joglo tajug is a model for sacral buildings. Combination between limasan for nave and joglo tajug for chancel could unite profane life of the parishioners and the sacred of tabernacle which situated in the edge of chancel under the height of joglo tajug roof. Architect of this church was unknown, and the construction debris had gone. However, based on a journal written by a Priest, H. Caminada, SJ, and compared it with the original photographs of the Somohitan church, the form and structure of this building could visually reconstructed by the author as the above illustrations. According to Priest Caminada, the idea of this church was to adapting Bangsal Witana, a hall building in Yogyakarta Sultanate Palace complex which is functioned as place for Sultanate heirlooms. Bangsal Witana is a sacred building situated at the rear of a bigger profane hall where people facing the throne of the sultan. Based on the design concept, the employment of Bangsal Witana in the early Somohitan church aimed to juxtapose the philosophy of spatial pattern in the Javanese architecture with the philosophy of spatial pattern in the church architecture of Rome basilica. In the Javanese architecture of Bangsal Witana, the profane space is separated from the sacred space by spatial pattern and building forms. This could be equal to the principle of spatial pattern in the Rome basilica: profane space is the nave and sacral space is the chancel. 74 Figure 48: Transformation of the second Somohitan church (author, 2010 and UNESCO, 2007) 75 The second Somohitan church was another case of juxtaposing transformation. This church employed timber framed constructions to support their roofs. Some materials were taken from the former church since not all its materials were burned in a riot in 1948. Traditionally, a kampong house employed timber framed construction for both roofs and walls. Improvement on this building was the employment of concrete frame construction for the wall instead of the timbers. Besides, comparing to the traditional ones, this church used larger windows with glass to optimize light. Although the form of this building looks more modest, its capacity was as optimum as the old church since the basic form of the both churches are rectangular. New improvement of this church was on the availability of ‘mother and children’s room’ at the behind of altar. This room was special for mothers and their children to join Mass. The existence of this space gives flexibility to the mothers to attend Mass while caring for their children. The concept of a kampong house for this church reflects modesty. This is in accordance with the spirit of the Second Vatican Council that encourages Churches to empathize to the real situations in the societies, and at that time the Somohitan villagers were in a humble situation. In this case, the modesty of the kampong house typology was juxtaposed to the spirit of the Second Vatican Council to empathize to the real situation of the society. 4.2. Superimposing The second configuration of inculturation happened when one of the two cultures superimposes the other one. In this case, a culture that finds the more entry points comparing to the other one will become the dominator. The early Klaten church and the new Ganjuran church could be included into this category. 76 Figure 49: Transformation of the early Klaten church (author, 2010 and UNESCO, 2007) The basic plan of the early Klaten church followed Rome basilica typology: a large rectangular roofed hall. Architect of this building was unknown, and it was believed that this church was constructed from a used tobacco warehouse. By this presumption, the form of the church building depended on the structure of the used 77 tobacco warehouse which employed wide span roof structure. This type of structure allowed the formation of a vast and clear interior space. Consequently, this church did not need colonnades in its interior to shore up the roof. The absent of colonnades had set this church different from the standard Rome basilica: no clerestory which gave light to the interior from its roof, no aisle or arcaded spaces at one or both sides of the nave divided the interior. The early Klaten church applied a symmetrical ground plan pattern to put altar as the central with a long straight nave. According to Mangunwijaya, the concept of symmetrical pattern is a feature of the old European church. In the past, the church was defined as “a house of prayer”. Tabernacle in the middle of the altar was the only focus in the church. This concept represented the spirit of the pre-Second Vatican Council to put Mass as a personal communication of each parishioner to God. While the employment of wide span roof structure tended to adapt to the availability of material rather than an adaptation to the local environmental conditions. The above analyses indicated that the early Klaten church had superimposed the European church architectural tradition on the local architecture. The European church architectural tradition entered a local site and put itself as a new architectural tradition. 78 Figure 50: Transformation of the new Ganjuran church (author, 2010 and UNESCO, 2007) 79 The new Ganjuran church followed a joglo house typology. General characteristic of joglo house could be seen from its double or triple trapezoid form of the roof. Basically, joglo house building is also constructed by timber frame construction system. Nevertheless, comparing to kampong and limasan house, joglo house has a multilevel timber frame construction system which is called “tumpang sari”. It is a triple or quintuple rectangular beam structure with four columns at the four corners. The four columns are called “saka guru” which means “principal pillars”. The saka guru laid in the center of building. Originally, the wall is made from solid wood board and the roof is made from shingle. The wall is fit-loose designed, so for other purposes this building can become an open-end building which is called “pendopo joglo” and it functions as a lobby of a house or as a public building. This pendopo house typology has been developed and employed as religious building by modifying its roof to become pyramidal. This new type is called “joglo tajug”. Later when Islam came to Java, this type was employed as mosque building by putting a pulpit in one of its borders and turning the orientation to the west to face Mecca. Generally, performance of the new Ganjuran church followed a joglo tajug typology that inspired from Bangsal Kencana of Yogyakarta Sultanate Palace. Wood panels were installed resembling tumpang sari and saka guru of the Bangsal Kencana. Lavish ornaments copied from the Bangsal Kencana were also carved on those panels. These facts imply that the new Ganjuran church had superimposed a local architecture typology on the Catholic Church architecture. A joglo tajug adapted from Bangsal Kencana were functioned as a church. 80 4.3. Interlocking The third configuration of inculturation occured when the inner and outer cultures had found equal entry points to influence each another. The both cultures interlocked each other harmoniously to reach a new balance. The new Klaten church and the new Somohitan church could be included into this category. The new Klaten church employed a kampong house typology. The character of a kampong house could be seen in its triangle roof form. The employment of kampong house typology made the roof of this building look simpler. However, different from the roof form, the shape of walls looked more complex. The highest walls at the two poles were the peak points of the twin three-legged pillars. Those pillars were the main structure of this building which was identical with the saka guru of the Javanese traditional house. Walls were arranged with variation of angles to perform dynamic compositions. Moreover, these walls were perforated artistically to perform certain ecclesiastical symbols, beside they function as air ventilations and vertical skylights. Different from the roof which follows kampong house typology, the ground plan of this building follows the typology of joglo house. Traditionally, a complete joglo house contains five sequence spaces: front yard, pendopo (public hall buildings), pringgitan (transition hall terrace), dalem (main hall building), and gandok (multifunction building for daily life). According to Mangunwijaya, he identified the joglo sequence spaces with the sequence spaces of the temple of Israeli’s God portrayed in the Gospel. Rooms of the sequence spaces in the original joglo house are symmetrical, but for this church, Mangunwijaya set them asymmetrical for adaptation to the existing site. 81 Figure 51: Transformation of the new Klaten church (author, 2010 and UNESCO, 2007) 82 Otherwise, the new church applied an asymmetrical pattern to put the altar in a corner of the church. According to Mangunwijaya, central does not have to be in the middle, but in focus. By putting the altar in the corner, it can be seen more easily from all point of views. By this pattern, orientation of the pulpit becomes more flexible to optimize communication between the priest and the parishioners. This is in accordance with the spirit of openness of the Second Vatican Council. More than just a spatial pattern concept, the new Klaten church developed many new concepts taken from local philosophical values to be integrated into the universal values of gospel teachings. However, all the conceptual ideas were materialized in the modern architectural forms. By those complexities of configuration, the new Klaten church had interlocked local philosophical values and the universal values of gospel teachings into a new architecture based on modern architecture principles. 83 Figure 52: Transformation of the new Somohitan church (author, 2010 and UNESCO, 2007) 84 Another case that shows interlocking happened in the new Somohitan church. Judging from its physical form, the new Somohitan church employed a Joglo saka tunggal typology. However, the designing process was not as simple as copying a typology. According to H. Ismartono P.R., the architect, the form was basically created from three requirements he collected from the building committee as a representation of parishioners. They were: do not create a church as a loji, do not create a church with many pillars inside, and rotate the direction of the building facing west to the north. ‘Loji’ is a term to express a meaning of ‘something stranger that is not adaptable to the local condition’. Local parishioners wanted a church in accordance with their circumstances and did not stand out compared to surrounding buildings. The two former churches contained many pillars in their interior. It caused a problem of the viewing obstruction to the altar. They wanted this problem did not occur in the new church anymore. The former two buildings faced westward, to the main street. Considering the street which was getting crowded, they wanted to change the church facing north. After gathering the brief information, Ismartono and his team designed four alternatives to be presented to the building committee to get feedbacks from them. Of the four design alternatives, architect team got 184 feedback points. Then, the architect team submitted the four design alternatives together with their feedbacks to the archdiocese to be decided and to be developed. Therefore, the form that appears similar to a joglo saka tunggal was the result of parishioners’ involvement to provide feedbacks. Although the form was similar to a joglo saka tunggal, this church employed different technology of construction. The roof used steel construction, and the wall used concrete frame construction. Traditional materials were employed in 85 architectural elements. Bamboo mats was applied for ceiling instead of acoustical gypsum board. Local brick and stones were exposed and applied for the walls. Design concept of this church was openness. The employment of a single pillar to create visibility in the interior and the third entrance on the third side of the churchyard is a physical manifestation of the concept of openness. This was in accordance with the spirit of the Second Vatican Council to bring Catholic Church to become an inclusive church. Because the architect used three requirements that he collected from the parishioners as a basis for design development, he has practiced a bottom-up approach, or he called it as “participatory design approach”. By the employment of this approach, this church had interlocked the universal requirements in Catholic Church and the real needs of the local parishioners. In this level of architectural inculturation, the architect put himself as a mediator to bring all the concrete needs of the local parishioners and all the requirements of the bishopric of Semarang as the representation of universal Catholicism into his design so that his design is in accordance and acceptable for all parties. 86 CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION This chapter discusses the practice of architectural inculturation in a broader point of view. Results of the previous analyses including development of the three churches and transformation analysis become the basis to be connected with the results of interviews with relevant parties including parish priests, church leaders and officials, parishioner leaders and architects of the churches in the Archdiocese of Semarang. Names of the parties are mentioned as long as it is relevant to keep the authenticity of opinions and does not interfere with privacy and ethics. The author is also engage to provide insight based on personal experience during exploring the data and engaged in activities in churches during the research in the field, and personal knowledge acquired through the theoretic studies about inculturation and church architecture. This discussion aims to generate a new understanding on the church architectural inculturation. 5.1. The Significance of the Church Architectural Inculturation It is important to note that one of the essences of inculturation is to encourage local parishioners to engage in a dialogue of culture, so the Church can adapt to the local cultural values and the parishioners are able to understand the biblical values in their cultural context. In religious life, this cultural dialogue is usually materialized in church liturgies. To accommodate the need of space for liturgical inculturation, inculturation in architecture is required. In this context, architectural inculturation is spatial adaptations to accommodate the need of distinctive local liturgies. With architectural inculturation, liturgical inculturation will be more easily implemented. 87 As an example, in liturgical inculturation in Ganjuran church there is “astuti”, a traditional ritual to parade a sacred abject around the sacred space. Since the sacred object is a monstrance, the existence of the Sacred Heart of Jesus Monument which was built in Javanese Hindu temple typology has allowed a circumambulatory movement can be conducted properly. Figure 53: The “astuti”, a ritual to parade the monstrance around the Ganjuran temple (author, 2009) Another example is the using of local language in liturgy. Both Ganjuran, Klaten and Somohitan church holds weekly Mass in Javanese language. Ideally, this Mass should be accompanied by a gamelan orchestra as the liturgical music. Since gamelan orchestra uses many instruments which are played by sitting cross-legged on the ground, it needs a distinctive spatial design in the church. 88 Figure 54: Gamelan for liturgical music in the Ganjuran church (author, 2009) However, does architectural inculturation relate to improving the quality of faith? It is difficult to find this correlation. Things can be explained is that by the existence of an appropriate physical environment, parishioners will be more able to enter the sacred atmosphere to live up to biblical values in their cultural context. For an example, almost every day, in the Ganjuran church there are always parishioners or pilgrims who come to pray in front of the statue of Jesus placed in the Sacred Heart of Jesus temple. From the periods of animism and dynamism to the Hinduism and Buddhism, long before Catholicism exists in Java, the Javanese used to do worship in sacred places in stone monuments. Since it has been going on for thousands of years, the Javanese up to now can feel the stone temple as a sacred place. Because the presence of statues of the goods in the temple has been replaced with a statue of Jesus, so parishioners can appreciate the presence of Jesus as their god, but remained in the atmosphere of sanctity in the perception of Javanese. 89 Figure 55: A pilgrim is praying in front of the statue of Jesus inside the Ganjuran temple (author, 2009) Architectural inculturation can also serve to alter the perception of the parishioners of the meaning of the sanctity of a place. In this context, inculturation functions to transform the architecture toward the renewal of the direction of modern architecture. The Klaten church is a good example for this. Javanese recognize what is referred to as “luwengan”, which is a small, hidden space and placed in the deepest part of a building. Luwengan functions as the place to do meditation in the ancient Java. Mangunwijaya used this idea to create a separate space to put the tabernacle. Since the chancel is too open, he created luwengan in the edge of the chancel behind the altar. However, he materialized this space in modern manifestation. Here Mangunwijaya strongly considered designing the church with liturgical functions and adapted to local cultural condition, so the church can provide comfort and parishioners do not feel alienated in it. To provide all the symbolic meanings, he adjusted them to modern architecture by staying put forward the principle of functionalism. 90 Figure 56: The luwengan, a small and hidden space to put the tabernacle in the Klaten church (author, 2010) 5.2. Benchmark in the Church Architectural Inculturation Once the issue of inculturation in the church architecture is raised, there will be a distinction between church architecture with inculturation and church architecture without inculturation. The problem is that the actual rules for the standard model of church architecture to represent universal Catholicism have never existed. Even the Second Vatican Council which encouraged the development of inculturation has also never issued a rule on the standardization of church architecture and the limits permitted in the inculturation of church architecture. Therefore, with what benchmarks should the architectural inculturation be set? Related to this matter, the first thing to do is the correction of misconception about the standard of the Catholic Church architecture. The right benchmark is not on the building model, but in the building function related to the liturgy. In another word, 91 what is standardized is the liturgy, not the architecture. Therefore, if the Rome basilica was considered as the standard for Catholic Church architecture in the past, it is because the architecture of basilica, which was taken from the model of public building of the imperial Rome, has been adapted and enhanced over hundreds of years, so it can generally be considered able to accommodate the Latin liturgy of the Rome Catholic more ideally comparing to the other church typologies. Since the Second Vatican Council opened the opportunity of developing nonLatin liturgy, many local liturgies has grown. These local liturgies also require adjusted church buildings. Therefore, the relevant architectural inculturation should not be focused on the development of architectural styles but on the development of church architecture to be in accordance with local liturgical functions. The local liturgies themselves are developed by adjusting the local culture and environment so that local parishioners can feel more convenient, and ultimately appreciation of Christian values can be perceived more deeply. Besides building function related to the liturgy, adaptation to the local environmental condition can be set as another benchmark for the church architectural inculturation. Clerestory, an upper level of the walls above the rooflines of the lower aisles in the basilica typology is an adaptation to the local environment. It functions to give light to the interior of basilica. The employment of lime stone is the same. It was a local material which was widely used to construct buildings in Europe or the imperial Rome in the past. For other regions in the world, the building typologies, structures and material for the church should be also adapted to the various local environmental conditions. 92 5.3. Design Approach in the Church Architectural Inculturation Architectural inculturation is efforts to create religious architectures which are suitable with local cultures and environments and also in accordance with religious rules which is manifested in liturgies. The success of these efforts depends on the ability of architects to formulate design solutions. Appropriate design solutions needs accurate design approaches. According to the case studies on the three churches in Java, architects have implemented two opposing design approaches including: “topdown approach” and “bottom-up approach”. In the top-down approach, architects empower all their knowledge about the culture, environment, religious rules, and skills to formulate design solutions. In the bottom-up approach, architects involve parishioners in the process of design to give opinions. Architects interpret the need of parishioners and harmonize it with the Church liturgical need. Both approaches can produce equally good design solutions; it all depends on the ability of architects in the running of their chosen approach. However, since inculturation emphasizes openness to dialogue, bottom-up approach will further optimize the emergence of inculturation values in the architectural design solutions. The early Ganjuran church has a good design solution since it juxtaposed the Rome basilica concept with local environmental conditions. Although it may be given by the founder, Julius Schemutzer, without the involvement of parishioners’ opinions, this church design is acceptable. He has adapted the church to the local environmental condition in an appropriate proportion. The design solution of the early Somohitan church could also delivered an architectural inculturation well by juxtaposing the spatial pattern of Bangsal Witana with the spatial pattern of Rome basilica. However, since Bangsal Witana is a building typology for the nobility while Somohitan parishioners were just ordinary 93 people in a rural area, the design was not appropriate for them. This discordance could happen probably because the architect did not involve the opinion of local parishioners. As an early mission church, this church may be just given by the mission for the early parishioners, and this can be understood. Therefore, the involvement of parishioners in the design process in the recent church represents a step forward. The idea of joglo saka tunggal was formulated from the three main requirements collected from the parishioners (pg. 48-49). Otherwise, the extent of the altar for mass celebrations and the roof which was divided into three layers as a symbol of trinity are the direct requests from the Archbishopric of Semarang. In this way the architect has placed himself as an interpreter of the both parties so that the design would also be in accordance with all their needs. 5.4. The Role of Architects, Parish Priests and Parishioners Considering that inculturation in the church architecture prioritizes dialogue and participation of parishioners, a question arises: who should decide the design? In designing the Klaten church, Mangunwijaya as the architect involved the parishioners in certain limits. He was firm and autonomous in making design decisions. Besides formulated new concepts inspired from the local environment and materialized them in the form of church architecture, he also educated the parishioners related to the architectural insights. Good design of his work can only be felt by the parishioners physically in a sense of comfort as well as sacred whenever they use the church. Otherwise, his philosophical concepts can only be understood if he explained it to them. He did that by making the writing to be reprinted in the parish catalogs. He also provided advice to the parish administrators on how to maintain the church. 94 The opposite case occurred in Ganjuran. The concept of Bangsal Kencana initiated by Priest Utomo is good. However, it should be also well materialized. Just copying the original model of Bangsal Kencana from Yogyakarta Sultanate Palace and pasting it in Ganjuran has led to a polemic. Although many parishioners and the pilgrims admired the beauty of the building, some of them felt incompatibility of the existence of the new church. They questioned whether it was a church or the Sultan’s Palace. Even a prince of the Yogyakarta Sultanate commented that the church was even more magnificent than the Sultan’s palace. In the point of view of the Javanese culture, such comment implies a disagreement. No traditional buildings, including religious buildings of any religions in Yogyakarta, deserved to be built more magnificent than the Sultanate Palace, unless they were not built as Javanese traditional buildings. Furthermore, seen form the point of view of adaptation to the local environmental condition, this grandeur church shows impartiality. Ganjuran was a rural region and most of its parishioners were humble farmers. Nowadays it is transforming to be more modern. The former church was as simple as the humble of its parishioners. Therefore, if the new church will be adapted to modernism, it should be designed as a modern church. Otherwise, if the employment of traditional architecture will be retained, the new church should have been designed more simply. The early Ganjuran church also has an important role in the development of the Ganjuran parishioners. This trail was simply eliminated since the former church was removed from the site and rebuilt elsewhere that has no significant historical connections. Only some interior elements including statue of Jesus, Mary and angels in Javanese character and tabernacle are retained for the new church. All the above discrepancies would not happen if the architects had been given the authority to make design decisions, since in the early designing process the architect team has created a 95 preliminary design that retain important architectural elements in the site of the former church and integrated it with the new church design. While for the new church, the architect team had planned to materialize the concept of Bangsal Kencana in a simpler form and functional following the principle of modern architecture. The two opposite examples above, Klaten and Ganjuran church, proves that design decision should be given to the architects as the most competent party in the field of architecture. In the bishopric of Semarang, the final supervision in a church building project is on the hand of bishopric administrator. However, the role of parish priests in the architectural development is also important. Since they sometimes put themselves as church architects, negative and positive impact can occur. Their knowledge in theology and culture can improve philosophical concepts of the church architecture. Nevertheless, they should ask the architect how to transform their ideas into architectural forms. Study architecture for few selected priests like how Archbishop Soegijapranata has done by funding Priest Mangunwijaya to study architecture proved how an architect-priest can be a potency to result significant improvements in the development of church architectural inculturation. If not, dividing clearly the roles of a priest and a church architect in a church building project is also crucial to avoid the above risk. A priest can be the conceiver of the architectural philosophy, and let professional architects materialize it. Church architects may have a personal idealism in designing a church. An appropriate church design can be created by their individual ideas and experts. However, ideal on the perspective of architects can be perceived differently by the users. Parishioners as the users who do not recognize architectural insights will percept the church based on their practical experiences. The concept of Javanese 96 traditional house with a distinctive re-interpretation by Mangunwijaya on the Klaten church can only be understood by parishioners whenever he describes his idea and they listen to or read the description. Parishioners who may have a different social and cultural background from the architect can assert different opinions related to the architect’s perception about an appropriate design. Ergonomic back rested seats for a church designed by an architect could be unsuitable for rural parishioners since they traditionally are using to sit on the bamboo couches in their daily life. Otherwise, parishioners who recognize the characteristic of local nature can give precise information to the architect before he/she decides to design a church. A very humid air at Somohitan Village in certain periods will damage gypsum acoustic panels in the non-air conditioned interior of the Somohitan church. Based on the local parishioner information, the architect could wisely employ local plaited bamboo mats instead. Discrepancies between architects and parishioners as above should be considered by the church architects. The employment of participatory design approach in designing the Somohitan church is a good example of how the architect is opened for information, opinions, requirements, and even objections and critics from the local parishioners related to the church architectural design. Nevertheless, architects should give proportional roles for them. Many kinds of people will give many kinds of ideas and arguments. To anticipate too much personal interests and tastes, architects should be selective in accepting their ideas and arguments. By this way, architects will be able to put themselves as an autonomous creator as well as a wise interpreter in creating an appropriate form, function and meaning of the church architecture. 97 5.5. Social Communication in the Church Architectural Inculturation The success of architectural inculturation, besides depending on the architects in formulating design solutions, also depends on the support of the parishioners and society. The case in the Somohitan church is a good example for this. Learning from the experience of rejection by the society that culminated in the burning of the church in 1948, the Somohitan church started to realize the importance of a good social communication with its society. Priest Rutten is the pioneer for the Somohitan church in building partnership with society through social programs. Priest Yatno continued his efforts until finally, under his leadership, the Somohitan Parish successfully built a new church supported not only by its parishioners but also by non-Catholic communities in Somohitan village and surroundings. According to Priest Yatno, what he did is to practice the principles taught by his senior, Priest Mangunwijaya, about the importance of the church being closer to society. Existing social capital in the Somohitan Parish was also well utilized by Ismartono, the architect, with his decision to use community involvement approach in formulating the design solutions. Figure 57: Community support from various religious groups in the renovation of the Somohitan church (courtesy of the Somohitan Parish Secreatariat) 98 CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSION As a movement in Catholicism to respect local wisdoms and customs of various cultures in the world and to harmonize them with Gospel, inculturation has materialized in church architecture. By inculturation, interpretation of meanings in church architecture has become more plentiful, and it contains a duality between local and universal meaning. Local meaning is interpretations towards the church architecture that is interpreted by local parishioners based on their local cultural values, and universal meaning is interpretations towards it that is interpreted by the church institution based on the Gospel teachings. Choosing three Catholic churches in Java as the case study, this study found that the way the three churches transformed their forms, functions, and meanings can be classified in three configurations including juxtaposing, superimposing, and interlocking. Early configuration of inculturation is openness between inner and outer culture to juxtapose each another. Therefore, both of them will stand on their own cultures while they learn to find each entry points. The early Ganjuran church, the early and the second Somohitan church can be included into this category. The second configuration of inculturation happened when one of the two cultures superimposes the other one. In this case, a culture that finds the more entry points comparing to the other one will become the dominator. The early Klaten church and the new Ganjuran church can be included into this category. The third configuration of inculturation happened when the inner and outer cultures have found equal entry points to influence each another. The both cultures interlock each other harmoniously to reach a new 99 balance. The new Klaten church and the new Somohitan church can be included into this category. This study has also revealed some significance of the church architectural inculturation as follows: • First, church architectural inculturation can be useful to accommodate the need of distinctive local liturgies. Because the essences of inculturation is to encourage local parishioners to engage in a dialogue of culture, the Church can adapt to the local cultural values and the parishioners are able to understand the biblical values in their cultural context. In religious life, this cultural dialogue is usually materialized in church liturgies. To accommodate the need of space for liturgical inculturation, inculturation in architecture is required. • Second, church architectural inculturation can be useful to create a sacred atmosphere for the appreciation of biblical values in the context of local culture. By the existence of an appropriate physical environment, parishioners will be more able to enter the sacred atmosphere to live up to biblical values in their cultural context. • Third, architectural inculturation can serve to alter the perception of the parishioners of the meaning of the sanctity of a place. In this context, inculturation functions to transform the architecture toward the renewal of the direction of modern architecture. Learning from the new Klaten church, architect Mangunwijaya employed a traditional spatial concept but then he materialized it in modern manifestation. Finally, this study can generate some requirements to success the conducting of church architectural inculturation as follows: 100 • First, architectural inculturation should be in accordance with the actual needs for the implementation of local liturgies. Spirit of openness of the Second Vatican Council has triggered the growth of inculturation, including in church architecture. However, cases in Java has been put forward to prove that church architectural inculturation has been accepted and lived naturally since the inculturation was created in accordance with the needs for the implementation of local liturgies. Therefore, whenever a church requires renovation, it must be precisely adjusted to actual needs related to the implementation of local liturgies. • Second, architectural inculturation should be able to respond the local environmental condition. If the Church were located in a humble peasant settlement, it is not proper to build a grand church architecture. When society and their environment have evolved from traditional to modern, it is irrelevant if then a traditional architecture is taken for the model of church superficially. In 1960’s, the Klaten church was located in a suburb region and majority of its parishioners were farmer. The employment of kampong house typology is an appropriate choice related to the physical environment adaptation. On the other hand, late 1960s, when the church was built, was a transitional period of Javanese society, including communities in Klaten, from traditional to modern. Therefore, although Mangunwijaya took the ideas of Javanese traditional architecture, yet he formed the church in modern manifestations. No traditional ornaments lavished the church. He used some local materials that local craftsmen can maintain them easily. The parishioners can accept these appropriate ideas and the church can still be used properly until recently. • Third, as long as a church can still fulfill its function to gather parishioners attending Mass, architectural inculturation can be adjusted in the existing church 101 in order to adapt to the spatial need for local liturgies. Adjustments can be done sparingly, either by recomposing the interior spaces and add complement buildings around the church to extent not damaging the authenticity of the original church. It is important that the process of architectural inculturation can take place as necessary. The history of the early Ganjuran church can become an example for this, since the inculturation in its architecture has been transpiring during its development. Although inculturation has just been issued after 1965, the practice of inculturation in the Ganjuran church had been started earlier. However, from 1924 until 2006, the church had only been renovated as necessary. Expansions of the church building were done for several times to adjust the number of parishioners, and additional buildings were established to complete the original church building. Total renovation has just happened in 2008 after an earthquake devastated Ganjuran. • Fourth, the architectural design should be escorted by professional architects. Since the architecture of religious buildings has a vast complexity of the problems related to physical and philosophical issue, it requires a deep thought and an appropriate solution. Professional architects are more capable in handling problems and able to give more proper solutions since they have relevant knowledge and skill background. On the other hand, the architects have to involve more local parishioners to participate in the design process. The motivation to build the church must be grown from the parishioners. Architects need to explore the needs of the parishioners, but they should explicitly define the parishioners’ role and sort out their inputs. Appropriate opinions should be accommodated in the design and misrepresentation of opinions must be corrected. All must be explained by the architects persuasively to make parishioners understand. This is 102 the role of architects to educate parishioners about architectural insight, in order to success the church architectural inculturation. • Fifth, architects need to implement a bottom-up design approach which involves parishioners in the process of design, and together with parish priests and local parishioners maintain a good social communication with non-Catholic society during the building process. 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Maps of Indonesia and Central Java (author, 2010) 1.2 Objective of the Study and Research Question Choosing three Catholic churches in Java as the case study, this study tried to reveal architectural inculturation by analyzing their development and examining their transformation of forms, functions, and meanings Furthermore, this study aims to generate broader understandings about the church architectural. .. Personal knowledge was acquired through the theoretic studies about inculturation and church architecture New understandings on the church architectural inculturation are raised through this discussion 1.4 Limitation of the Study Based on the experience during survey for this study, there are many cases on architectural inculturation which could be found in the Catholic churches in Java The more cases... in the church architectural inculturation? How is the role of architects, parish priests and parishioners in the church architectural inculturation? Why social communication is important in the church architectural inculturation? Finally, all the questions lead to a formulation: What are the requirements to success the conducting of church architectural inculturation? 3 1.3 Methodology In this study, ... reveal an architectural inculturation phenomenon In this study, transformation itself is defined as the change of form, function, and meaning of the church architecture that is caused by intercultural interactions These transformations related to the process of ‘meeting’ of 4 inner and outer architectural culture Analysis of the transformations results three configurations including juxtaposing, superimposing,... of Inculturation and Church Councils According to Franzen, he explained that inculturation is a long historical process in Catholicism His description on inculturation can be summarized in a time line chart as follow: Figure 3: Timeline chart of Inculturation (author, 2009, referring Franzen, 1988) The formulation of inculturation by the Catholics, before this term was formally declared in the Second... superimposing, and interlocking The results of development and transformation analyses are used as the bases to reveal architectural inculturation of the chosen three churches in a broader point of view Interviews with parish priests, church leaders and officials, parishioner leaders and architects of the churches are the main sources for this discussion Meanings in the three churches are encoded through their... architectural inculturation through a discussion based on the above development analyses and transformation examination results More specifically, these broader understandings will be achieved through some research questions including: How the transformation can be categorized? What is the significance of the church architectural inculturation? What is the benchmark in the church architectural inculturation? ... the life of the Church”; and in the encyclical Redemptoris Missio in 1990, he also defined inculturation as the intimate transformation of authentic cultural values through their integration in Christianity and the insertion of Christianity in the various human cultures." Finally, Redemptoris Missio 52 stated that inculturation is a theological term which has been defined as the on- going dialogue... Church in Indonesian Archipelago Architecture of the three parish churches in Java are taken as the case study including: the Ganjuran church, the Klaten church, and the Somohitan church They are chosen based on a consideration that each churches has unique characteristics related to architectural inculturation, however all of them have a similarity in using Javanese architectural culture as the basic