NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF VEHICLE HYDROPLANING AND SKID RESISTANCE ON GROOVED PAVEMENT KUMAR ANUPAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE 2012 NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF VEHICLE HYDROPLANING AND SKID RESISTANCE ON GROOVED PAVEMENT KUMAR ANUPAM (B.Tech(Civil), Indian Institute of Technology (IIT)-Roorkee) A THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE 2012 ABSTRACT The primary objective of this research is to study the characteristics of hydroplaning and skid resistance of passenger cars and trucks on highway pavements by means of numerical simulation. The first part of research deals with the study of hydroplaning of smooth vehicular tires on pavements with various surface groove patterns. The simulations were performed using the computational fluid dynamics software FLUENT. The second part of the study involves the simulation of wet pavement skid resistance measurements of smooth vehicular tires on grooved pavements. The three-dimensional finite element simulation model was developed using computer software ADINA. Simulation analysis reveals that pavement grooving helps in raising skid resistance, lowering breaking distances and raising hydroplaning speed thereby lowering the risk of wet-weather accidents for both passenger cars and trucks. The research has demonstrated that the analytical simulation model is a convenient tool for predicting wet-pavement skid resistance and hydroplaning speed. i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author would like to express his utmost gratitude and appreciation to his supervisor, Professor Fwa Tien Fang, who has continually and convincingly displayed a spirit of adventure in exploring of things as yet unknown and great excitement in teaching. He is deeply indebted to him for his guidance, care, support supervision and most importantly encouragement throughout this research program. He would also like to extend his gratitude to PhD committee and Dr. Ong Ghim Ping Raymond for the support and recommendations made to improve the research. Special thanks are given to the National University of Singapore for providing the research scholarship during the course of research. Thanks are also extended to fellow research mates and friends, Mr. Srirangam Santosh Kumar, Mr. Farhan Javed, Dr. Bagus Hario Setiadji, Mr. Wang Xing Chang, Mr. Qu Xiabo., Mr. Hadunneththi Rannulu Pasindu, Miss Ju Fenghua, Mr. Yang Jiasheng and Mr. Sanjay Kumar Bharati, for their kind support. Gratitude is accorded to Mr. Foo Chee Kiong, Mr. Goh Joon Kiat, Mr. Mohammed Farouk, Mrs. Yap-Chong Wei Leng and Mrs. Yu-Ng Chin Hoe of the Transportation Engineering Laboratory; Mr. Wang Junhong of the Supercomputing and Visualization Unit of the National University of Singapore Computer Center for their kind assistance and support in the course of research. Finally, the author would like to express his heartfelt thanks and gratitude to his family for their tremendous care, utmost support and encouragement given to the author in his work. i TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background 1.2 Objective 1.3 Scope of Research 1.4 Organization of Thesis LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Mechanism of Skid Resistance and Hydroplaning 2.1.1 Skid Resistance 2.1.2 Factors Affecting Skid Resistance 2.1.3 Hydroplaning 2.1.4 Factors Affecting Hydroplaning 2.2 Empirical Relationships of Skid Resistance and Hydroplaning 2.2.1 Skid Resistance 2.2.2 Hydroplaning Speed 2.3 Theoretical Approaches of Skid Resistance and Hydroplaning Studies 2.3.1 One-Dimensional Flow Models 2.3.2 Two-Dimensional Flow Models 2.3.3 Three-Dimensional Flow Models 2.4 Research Needs and Scope of Study DEVELOPMENT OF SIMULATION MODEL FOR SKID RESISTANCE AND HYDROPLANING ON GROOVED PAVEMENT 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Computational Fluid Dynamics 3.2.1 Fluid Flow Model for Computational Fluid Dynamics 3.2.2 Solver Algorithm for Computational Fluid Dynamics 3.2.3 Turbulence Fluid Flow Modeling 3.2.4 Different Flow Models Used in FLUENT 3.2.5 Concept of Hydroplaning Modeling and Tire Deformation Profile 3.3 Finite Element Modeling of Tire-Fluid-Pavement Interaction 3.3.1 Pneumatic Tire Modeling 3.3.2 Fluid-flow Modeling 3.3.3 Modeling of Fluid Structure Interaction 3.3.4 Modeling of Pavement Surface 3.3.5 Tire Pavement Interface 3.3.6 Solution Procedure 3.3.7 Determination of Skid Resistance 3.4 Summary VALIDATION OF SIMULATION MODELS 4.1 Introduction 1 2 5 12 16 16 19 20 21 25 25 27 30 33 47 47 47 48 51 54 58 63 64 65 66 69 70 71 71 74 74 84 84 ii 4.2 4.3 4.4 Validation of FLUENT Hydroplaning Simulation Model 84 4.2.1 Comparison against NASA Hydroplaning Equation 85 4.2.2 Validation against Experimental Data for Longitudinal Pavement Grooving 86 4.2.3 Validation against Experimental Data for Transverse Pavement Grooving 87 Validation of Skid Resistance Model using ADINA against Experimental Data 87 Summary 90 CHARACTERIZING VARIATIONS IN HYDROPLANING SPEEDS AND BEHAVIOR OF SKID RESISTANCE OF GROOVED PAVEMENTS 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Grooved Surfaces Analyzed using FLUENT Model 5.3 Finite Element Mesh Design and Convergence Verification 5.3.1 Simulation Results based on Proposed Model 5.3.2 Hydroplaning Speed Variation in All Patterns 5.4 Analysis of Simulation Results of Hydroplaning Speeds 5.4.1 Macrotexture Pattern A: Transversely Grooved Surfaces 5.4.2 Macrotexture Pattern B: Longitudinally Grooved Surfaces 5.4.3 Macrotexture Pattern C: Grid-Pattern Grooved Surfaces 5.4.4 Effects of Groove Pattern and MTD on Hydroplaning Speed 5.5 Analysis of Simulation Results of Skid Resistance using ADINA Model 5.5.1 Effect of Pavement Grooving on Skid Resistance 5.5.2 Effect of Vehicle Speed on Skid Resistance 5.5.3 Effect of Operating Conditions on Skid Resistance 5.6 Summary VEHICLE STOPPING DISTANCE ANALYSIS 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Braking Distance Calculation 6.2.1 Procedure Adopted by Various Countries 6.3 Need for Evaluation of Braking Distance of In-Service Pavements 6.4 Mechanistic Determination of Braking Distance for In-Service Pavements 6.4.1 Computation of Braking Distance 6.4.2 Procedure for Analysis of Braking Distance and Friction Threshold Level 6.4.3 Accounting for Braking and Driver Control Efficiency 6.5 Results and Analysis 6.5.1 Effect of Grooved Depths 6.5.2 Effect of Water Film-thickness 6.5.3 Effect of Tire Inflation Pressure 6.5.4 Effect of Wheel Load 6.6 Summary on Variation Trends in Automobile Braking Distance 100 100 100 101 102 103 103 103 104 105 105 108 108 110 110 111 132 132 132 134 134 135 136 137 138 139 139 140 141 141 142 SKID RESISTANCES AND HYDROPLANING OF TRUCK TIRES ON GROOVED PAVEMENT 154 7.1 Introduction 154 iii 7.2 7.3 Modeling of Truck Tire 155 Validation of Truck Tire Models 157 7.3.1 Hydroplaning Speed for Truck Tire on Smooth Pavement 157 7.3.2 Skid resistance for Truck Tire on Smooth Pavement 158 7.3.3 Skid resistance for Truck Tire on Grooved Pavement 158 7.4 Mechanism of Skid Resistance 159 7.4.1 Forces Contributing to Skid Resistance 160 7.5 Variation Characteristics of Hydroplaning and Skid Resistance of Truck Tires on Grooved Pavements 161 7.5.1 Effects of Pavement Grooving on Hydroplaning Speed 161 7.5.2 Effects of Tire Inflation Pressure on Hydroplaning Speed 162 7.5.3 Effects of Wheel Load on Hydroplaning Speed 163 7.5.4 Effects of Vehicle Speed on Skid Resistance 163 7.5.5 Effects of Tire Inflation Pressure on Skid Resistance 164 7.5.6 Effects of Wheel Load on Skid Resistance 165 7.6 Summary 166 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 185 8.1 Research Overview 185 8.1.1 Development of 3-Dimensional Pneumatic Tire Hydroplaning Simulation Model on grooved Pavement Surface 186 8.1.2 Development of the Pneumatic Tire Hydroplaning Model 186 8.1.3 Hydroplaning on Grid Pattern Pavement Grooves 187 8.2 3-Dimensional Pneumatic Tire Modeling for Skid Resistance Measurements 189 8.3 3-Dimensional Truck Tire Modeling for Skid Resistance and Hydroplaning Speed Analysis 190 8.4 Recommendation for Future Research 191 iv SUMMARY The primary objective of this research is to study by means by numerical simulation the characteristics of hydroplaning and skid resistance of passenger cars and trucks on highway pavements with various forms of drainage enhancing surface grooves. The first part of research deals with the study of hydroplaning of vehicular tires pavements with various surface groove patterns. The aim was to offer a better understanding of how pavement grooving influences vehicle hydroplaning potential. The simulations were performed using the computational fluid dynamics software FLUENT. The simulation results were analyzed to evaluate the effects of the ASTM standard smooth tire on hydroplaning for various grooved pavement surfaces. In the hydroplaning model a fixed tire deformation profile based on Browne‘s experimental research is assumed. Computational fluid dynamic which uses numerical methods and algorithms to solve and analyze problems has been used to model the hydroplaning model. The fundamental basis of formulating the computational fluid dynamics problem is the NavierStokes equations. The flow at hydroplaning speed is known to be turbulent and thus the k-  model is used in the simulation. The second part of the study involves the relaxation of the hydroplaning tire deformation profile assumption of tire-fluid-pavement interactions. This is needed in order to develop models that can simulate wet skid resistance at speeds lower than hydroplaning speed. The threedimensional finite element simulation model that is capable of modeling solid mechanics, fluid dynamics, tire-pavement contact and tire-fluid interaction is solved using the computer software ADINA. The proposed simulation model is calibrated and validated for the case of a loaded stationary tire under both dry and wet pavement conditions. The model is used to simulate hydroplaning and skid resistance at different locked vehicle sliding speeds. By varying the v vehicle speed and operating conditions the effect of pavement grooves on skid resistance is studied for smooth passenger car tires and truck tires. The analysis reveals that transversely grooved surfaces produce much higher hydroplaning speeds than longitudinally grooved surfaces, and thus are more effective in reducing vehicle hydroplaning potential. However, grid patterns (a combination of longitudinal and transverse grooves) offer the highest hydroplaning speed. In general it was observed that deeper, wider and closely spaced grooving is more effective in reducing hydroplaning potential. In general the skid resistance is found to increase with wheel load and marginally with tire pressure, but decrease with the sliding wheel speed. Both longitudinal and transverse grooving are found to raise the skid resistance. Vehicle sliding speed was the most important factor affecting the magnitude of skid resistance for passenger car tires. The whole research has demonstrated that the analytical simulation model is a convenient tool for predicting wetpavement skid resistance and hydroplaning speed, and an effective means to study the influences of various factors on hydroplaning and skid resistance without the need to conduct large-scale experiments. vi LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1: Skid resistance measurement (after Henry, 1986) 35 Table 4.1: Comparison of past research results and predicted results of hydroplaning 92 Table 4.2: Description of various transversely grooved pavement surfaces tested by 92 Table 4.3: Skid measurement conditions for smooth car tire on grooved pavement at tire inflation pressure of 165.5 kPa 93 Table 5.1: Hydroplaning speed and MTD for transversely grooved surfaces (ASTM E524 smooth tire, tire inflation pressure 186.2 kPa and wheel load 2410 N) 113 Table 5.2: Hydroplaning speed and MTD for longitudinally grooved surfaces (ASTM E524 smooth tire, tire inflation pressure 186.2 kPa and wheel load 2410 N) (Contd.) 115 Table 5.3: Hydroplaning speed and MTD for grid-pattern grooved surfaces (ASTM E524 smooth tire, tire inflation pressure 186.2 kpa and wheel load 2410 N) 116 Table 5.4: Water discharge rate of grooves 117 Table 6.1: Current practices for determining braking and stopping distances 144 Table 6.2: Parameters considered in the study 145 Table 6.3: Experimental skid number values 145 Table 7.1: Comparison of Footprint Dimensions from Experiment and Simulation 167 Table 7.2: Test conditions for skid number measusurements at different vehicle speeds 168 Table 7.3: Comparison between experimental skid number and simulation skid number 169 Table 7.4: Parameters considered in the analysis 170 vii Chapter The analyses of braking distance considers a locked smooth tire with zero tread depth skidding on a plane flooded pavement surface, and also on grooved pavement surfaces. Effect of pavement grooving at different groove depths were analyzed for various operating conditions of wheel load, water-film thickness, and tire inflation pressure. The braking distance trends show that tire inflation pressure, wheel load, water-film thickness, sliding speed, and driver control efficiency are all found to have significant effects on the length of braking distance. The analyses show that braking distance varies positively with water-film thickness and vehicle sliding speed, but negatively with driver control efficiency, tire inflation pressure and wheel load. From a safety point of view, the most unfavorable driving condition is the case of an inexperienced driver (i.e. low driver control) driving at high speed (i.e. low wheel load) with a low tire inflation pressure on a flooded pavement with a thick layer of surface water for completely plane pavement surface. Pavement grooving is found to significantly reduce the breaking distance i.e. decrease the risk of collision. Deeper grooves are found to be very effective in reducing breaking distance on flooded pavement. Pavement grooves are found to be more effective in reducing braking distances at higher vehicle speeds. 8.3 3-Dimensional Truck Tire Modeling for Skid Resistance and Hydroplaning Speed Analysis Past researches suggest that hydroplaning and skid resistance behavior of truck tire is different from normal passenger cars, and it has been found that truck accidents due to lack of skid resistance or hydroplaning can occur in the normal operating speed range of trucks. Simulation models were developed for estimating truck hydroplaning and skid resistances respectively. The analysis shows that wheel load has significant effect on hydroplaning speed and as the wheel load decreases the hydroplaning speed decreases, implying that unladen trucks 190 Chapter are more prone to accidents because of low skid resistance during wet driving. The analysis showed that pavement grooves helps in raising skid resistance and hydroplaning. 8.4 Recommendation for Future Research The research has identified some areas which are recommended for further research to better understand the tire pavement interaction under wet conditions.  This research has considered modeling of hydroplaning and skid resistance only for locked wheels. Although locked wheel tire pavement interaction represents the worst case it could be extended to the modeling of rolling tire to estimate hydroplaning potential and skid resistance.  The current study made an attempt to measure the hydroplaning speed on grooved pavement surfaces. A similar approach can be adopted to analyze both skid resistance and hydroplaning on randomly textured pavement surfaces.  The current research studies the skid resistance of smooth passenger car tires and truck tires. This research can be further extended to study the hydroplaning and skid resistance of various aircraft tires.  Transverse grooving was found to be most effective in increasing skid resistance and hydroplaning speed. However, in normal highway operation this form of grooving is not adopted because of noise issues. Such issues related to noise can be addressed in future research. 191 References REFERENCES AASHTO (1994). A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 3rd Edition, Washington D.C. AASHTO (2004). A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 5th Edition, Washington D.C. ABAQUS Inc. (2003). ABAQUS 6.4 Analysis User‘s Manual, USA. ADINA R&D Inc. (2005). ADINA Theory and Modeling Guide Volume I: ADINA Solids and Structures, ADINA R&D Inc., Watertown, Massachusetts Agrawal S. K. and Henry J. J. (1977). Technique for Evaluating Hydroplaning Potential of Pavements. Transportation Research Record 633, pp. 1-7. American Concrete Pavement Association (ACPA). (2000). Concrete Pavement Surface Texture, Special report, Report No. ST902P, Report No. ST902P, American Concrete Pavement Association, Skokie, IL. American Society for Testing and Materials (2005c). ASTM Standard: E 1859 – 97. Standard Test Method for Friction Coefficient Measurements between Tire and Pavement using a Variable Slip Technique. ASTM Standards Sources, CD-ROM, Philadelphia. American Society for Testing and Materials (2005d). ASTM Standard: E 524 – 88. Standard Specification for Standard Smooth Tire for Pavement Skid-Resistance Tests, Philadelphia. American Society for Testing and Materials (2009a). ASTM Standard: E 670 – 09. Standard Specification for Standard Test Method for Side Force Friction on Paved Surfaces Using the Mu-Meter, Philadelphia. 192 References American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). (2005b). ASTM Standard: E 303 – 93. Standard Test Method for Measuring Surface Frictional Properties Using the British Pendulum Tester . ASTM Standards Sources, CD-ROM, Philadelphia. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM).(2005a).Standard E 274-97, Standard Test Method for Skid Resistance of Paved Surfaces Using a Full-Scale Tire ASTM Standard Sources, CD-ROM, Philadelphia. American Society for Testing and Materials. (2009b). ASTM Standard E 1911-09. Standard Test Method for Paved Surface Frictional Properties Using the Dynamic Friction Tester. ASTM Standards Sources, CD-ROM, Philadelphia. Andren, P. and Jolkin, A. (2003). Elastohydrdynamic Aspect of the Tire-Pavement Contact Aquaplaning, VTI Report 483A, Lnkoping, Sweden. Ardani, A. and Outcalt, W. (2005). ―PCP Texturing Methods‖. Department of transportation research CDOT-DTD-R-2005-22, Colorado Department Of Transportation Research Branch. AustRoads (2002). Urban Road Design - Guide to the Geometric Design of Major Urban Roads. AP-G69/02, Sydney, Australia. Balmer G. G. and Gallaway B. M. (1983). Pavement Design and Controls for Minimizing Automotive Hydroplaning and Increasing Traction. In Meyer W. E. and Walter J. D (eds.), Frictional Interaction of Tire and Pavement, ASTM STP 793, 167-190. Bathe, K. J. (1996). Finite Element Procedures. Prentice Hall, New Jersey. Benedetto, A.A (2002). Decision Support System for the Safety of Airport Runways: The Case of Heavy Rainstorms, Transportation Research Part A, Vol. 36, pp. 665-682. 193 References Bergman, W. (1976). Skid Resistance Properties of Tires and Their Influence On Vehicle Control, Transportation Research Record, No. 621, TRB, National Research Council, Washington D.C. pp. 8-18. Blevins, R. D. (1984). Applied Fluid Dynamics Handbook, Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. Inc., New York. Browne, A. L. and D. Whicker. (1983). An Interactive Tire-Fluid Model for Dynamic Hydroplaning. In Friction Interaction of Tire and Pavement, ASTM STP 793, ed: by W. E. Meyer and J. D. Walters, pp. 130-150, Americal Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia. Browne, A.L (1971). Dynamic Hydroplaning of Pneumatic Tires. PhD Thesis, North Western University, USA. Browne, A.L. (1975). Mathematical Analysis for Pneumatic Tire Hydroplaning. In Surface Texture Versus Skidding: Measurements, Frictional Aspects, and Safety Features of Tire-Pavement Interactions, ASTM STP 583, American Society for Testing and Materials, pp 75 – 94. Byrdsong, T., and Yager, T., (1973), Some Effects of Grooved Runway Configurations on Aircraft Tire Braking Traction Under Flooded Runway Conditions, NASA Technical Note TN D-7215. Chemical Rubber Company (1988). Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 69th Edition, CRC Press, Cleveland, Ohio, USA. Chira-Chavala, T. (1985). Empty Trucks and Their Problems on Wet Pavements—Can Truck Hydroplaning Theory be Supported by Accident Data, Texas Transp. Inst., Texas A&M Univ., USA. 194 References Cho, J. R., Lee, H. W., Sohn, J. S., Kim, G. J. and Woo, J. S. (2006). Numerical Investigation of Hydroplaning characteristics of Three-dimensional patterned tire, European Journal of Mechanics A/Solids, pp. 914-926. Dijks, A. (1976). Influence of Tread Depth on Wet Skid Resistance of Tires. In Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, No. 621, TRB, National Research Council, Washington D.C., pp. 136-147. Ervin, R., et al. (1985). Impact of Specific Geometric Features on Truck Operations and Safety at Interchanges. Final Report, FHWA Contract No. DTFH61-82-C-00054, Rept. No. UMTRI-85-33, August, Transportation Research Institute, University of Michigan, USA. Eshel, A.A (1967). Study of Tires on a Wet Runway, Report No. RR67-24, Annex Corporation, Redwood City, California. FHWA (1998). 1998 Strategic Plan. Federal Highway Administration. Washington, D.C. Fluent Inc. (2005) Fluent 6.2 User Guide, Lebanon, New Hampshire. Fwa, T. F., Ong, G. P., and Guo, J. (2005). Modeling Hydroplaning and Effects of Pavement Microtexture. . In Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, No. 1905/2005, TRB, National Research Council, Washington D.C., pp. 166-176. Gallaway, B. M., D. L. Ivey, G. G. Hayes, W. G. Ledbetter, R. M. Olson, D. L. Woods and R. E. Schiller (1979). Pavement and Geometric Design Criteria for Minimizing Hydroplaning. Federal Highway Administration Report No. FHWA-RD-79-31, Texas Transportation Institute, Texas A&M University, USA. 195 References Gargett, T. (1990). The Introduction of a Skidding-Resistance Policy in Great Britain, Surface Characteristics of Roadways: International Research Technologies, ASTM STP 1031, American Society of Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, pp. 30-38. Gough, V.E. (1959). Discussion of Paper by D. Tabor. Revue Generale Du Caoutchouc, Vol. 36, N0. 10, pp.1409. Grogger, H. and Weiss, M. (1996). Calculation of the Three-Dimensional Free Surface Flow around an Automobile Tire, Tire Science and Technology Vol.24, No.1, pp.39. Grogger, H. and Weiss, M. (1997). Calculation of Hydroplaning of a Deformable SmoothShaped and Longitudinally-Grooved Tire", Tire Science and Technology Vol.25, No.4, pp.265. Haas, R., W. R. Hudson and J. Zaniewski (1994). Modern Pavement Management. Kreiger Publishing Company, Malabar, Florida. Harrin, E. N. (1958). Low Tire Friction and Cornering Forces on a Wet Surface, NACA Technical Note 4406. Henry J. J. (2000). Evaluation of Pavement Friction Characteristics, A Synthesis Henry, J. J. (1986). Tire Wet-Pavement Traction Measurement: A State-of-the-Art Review. In The Tire Pavement Interface, ASTM STP 929, eds., by M.G. Pottinger and T.J. Yager, Philadelphia: American Society for Testing and Materials, pp – 25. Henry, J.J and Hegmon, R.R. (1975). Pavement Texture Measurement and Evaluation. ASTM STP 583. West Conshocken, Pa. 196 References Hibbs, B. and Larson, R. (1996). Tire Pavement Noise and Safety Performance: PCC Surface Texture Technical Working Group. Report No. FHWA-SA-96-068. Federal Highway Administration. Washington, D.C. Horne, W. B. (1969). Results from Studies of Highway Grooving and Texturing at NASA Wallops Station. In Pavement Grooving and Traction Studies, NASA SP-5073, pp. 425464, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Washington D.C., USA. Horne, W. B. and Tanner, J. A. (1969). Joint NASA-British Ministry of Technology Skid Correlation Study: Results from American Vehicles. In Pavement Grooving and Traction Studies, NASA SP-5073, pp. 325-360, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Washington D.C., USA. Horne, W. B., Yager. T. J., and Ivey. D. L. (1986) Recent Studies to Investigate Effects of Tire footprint Aspect Ratio on Dynamic Hydroplaning Speed. In The Tire Pavement Interface, ASTM STP 929, eds., by M.G. Pottinger and T.J. Yager, Philadelphia: American Society for Testing and Materials, pp 26 – 46. Horne, W.B and R.C Dreher. (1963). Phenomena of Pneumatic Tire Hydroplaning, NASA TN D-2056. Horne, W.B and T.J Leland (1962). Influence of Tire tread Pattern and Runway Surface Condition on Braking Friction and Rolling Resistance of a Modern Aircraft, NASA TN D-1376. Horne, W.B and U.T Joyner (1965). Pneumatic Tire Hydroplaning and Some Effects on Vehicle Performance. In SAE International Automotive Engineering Congress, 11 – 15 Jan, Detroit, Michigan, USA. 197 References Horne, W.B. (1984). Predicting the Minimum Dynamic Hydroplaning Speed for Aircraft, Bus, Truck, and Automobile Tires Rolling on Flooded Pavements. Presentation to ASTM Committee E-17 at College Station, June 5, Texas, USA. Huebner, R S; Anderson, D A; Warner, J C and Reed, J R (1997). Pavdrn: Computer Model for Predicting Water Film Thickness and Potential for Hydroplaning on New and Reconditioned Pavements, Transportation Research Record No. 1599, Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, Washington D.C., pp. 128-131. Interlocking Concrete Pavement Institute (ICPI). 2002. Mutual Materials, Tech SpecNo.13,website:http://www.panablock.com/content_images/Tech%20Spec%2013.pd f accessed on 6-07-07 Interlocking Concrete Pavement Institute (ICPI). 2004. Mutual Materials, Tech Spec No. 13, website: http://www.icpi.org/techspecs/index.cfm?id=7&tech=13, accessed on 5-07-07 Ivey, D.L. (1984). Truck Tire Hydroplaning-Empirical Verification of Home's Thesis. Presentation to the Technical Seminar on Tire Service and Evaluation, ASTh4 Committee F-9, November, Akron, Ohio, USA. Ivey, D.L., Lehtipuu, E. K., and Button, J. W. (1975). Rainfall and Visibility – The View From Behind the Wheel. Research Report 135-3, Texas Transport Institute, – The View College Station, Tex. Johnson, A. R., J. A. Tanner and A. J. Mason. (1999). Quasi-Static Viscoelastic Finite Element Model of an Aircraft Tire, NASA/TM-1999-209141, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Langley Research Center, Hampton, Virginia 198 References Krukkar, M. and Cook, J. C. (1972). The Effect of Studded tires on Different Pavement Materials and Surface Texture. Report no. H-36. Transportation System Section, Washington State University, Washington. Kummer, H. W. and W. E. Meyer. (1966). New Theory Permits Better Frictional Coupling Between the Tire and Road. Paper B 11, 11th International FISITA Congress, Munich. Launder, B. E. and Spalding, D. B. (1974). The Numerical Computation of Turbulent Flows, Computational Methods in Applied Mechanics in Engineering, Volume 3, pp. 269-289. Li, S., K. Zhu and S. Noureldin.(2005). Considerations in Developing a Network Pavement Inventory Friction Test Program for a State Highway Agency. Journal of Testing and Evaluation, Vol. 33, No. 5, pp. 1-8. Mannering, F. L., S. S. Washburn and W. P. Kilareski (2009). Principles of Highway Engineering 13 and Traffic Analysis, Wiley, USA. Martin, C.S. (1966). Hydroplaning of Tire Hydroplaning Final Report, Project B-608, Georgia Institute of Technology. Merlin, E. C., and Horne, W. B. (1977). ―Plastic (Wire-Combed) Grooving Of A Slip-Foified Concrete Runway Overlay At Patrick Henrv Airport-An Initlal Evaluation.‖ NASA TM X-73913, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Hampton, Virginia. Meyer, W.E., Hegmon, R. and Gillespie, T. (1974). Locked-Wheel Pavement Skid Tester Correlation and Calibration Techniques, NCHRP report 151. Moore, D. F (1966). Prediction of Skid Resistance Gradient and Drainage Characteristics for Pavements, Highway Research Record 131, pp. 181-203. Moore, D. F (1967). Prediction A Theory of Viscous Hydroplaning, International Journal of Mechanics Science, Vol. 9,pp. 797-810. 199 References Mosher, L. G. (1969). Results from Studies of Highway Grooving and Texturing by Several State Highway Departments. Pavement Traction and Grooving Studies, NASA SP-5073, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Washington D.C., USA, pp. 465-504. MSC/DYTRAN (1997), User's Manual V4, The MacNeal-Schwendler Corporation. Murad, M. M. and Abaza, K. A. (2006). Pavement friction in a program to reduce wet weather traffic accidents at the network level. In Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, No. 1949, TRB, National Research Council, Washington D.C., pp. 126-136. National Cooperative Highway Research Program Synthesis of Highway Practice (NCHRP),1972, Skid Resistance, Highway Research Board, National Academy of Oakden, G.J.(1977). Design Guide for Highways with a Positive Collection System. Roading Division, Ministry of Works and Development of Highway Practice. NCHRP Synthesis 291, 7p. Oh, C.W.,Kim, T.W., Jeong, H.Y.,Park,K.S.,and Kim,S.N.,Hydroplaning simulation for a straight-grooved tire by using FDM,FEM and an asymptotic method.In Journal of Mechanical Scinence and Technology, Vol 22,2008,pp. 34-40. Okano, T. and M. Koishi. (2000). A New Computational Procedure to Predict Transient Hydroplaning on a Tire. Presented in the 19th Annual Meeting and Conference on Tire Science and Technology, Akron, Ohio,USA. Olson, P. L., D. E. Cleveland, P. S. Fancher, L. P. Kostyniuk and L. W. Schneider (1984). Parameters affecting Stopping Sight Distance, NCHRP Report 270, National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP), Washington, D.C. 200 References Ong, G. P. and Fwa, T. F. (2007). Effectiveness of Transverse and Longitudinal Pavement Grooving in Wet-Skidding Control. In Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, No. 2005, TRB, National Research Council, Washington D.C., pp. 172-182. Ong, G.P and Fwa, T. F. (2006a). Transverse Pavement Grooving against Hydroplaning, I – Simulation Model. ASCE Journal of Transportation Engineering, Vol 132 No6 pp 441 – 448. Ong, G.P and Fwa, T.F (2006b). Transverse Pavement Grooving against Hydroplaning, II – Design. ASCE Journal of Transportation Engineering, Vol 132, No6, pp 449 – 457. Ong, G.P and Fwa, T.F (2010).Modeling Skid Resistance of commercial trucks on highways. ASCE Journal of Transportation Engineering, Vol 136, No6. Ong, G.P. (2004). Hydroplaning and Skid Resistance Analysis using Numerical Modelling. PhD Qualifying Report, Department of Civil Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore. Panagouli, O.K., and Kokkalis, A.G. (1998). Skid Resistance and Fractal Structure of Pavement Surface. Chaos, Solutions & Fractals, 9(3), 493-505. Pantakar, S. V. (1980). Numerical Heat and Fluid Flow, Hemisphere, Washington D.C. Pelloli, R. (1977).Road Surface Characteristics and Hydroplaning. In Transportation Research Record, No. 624, TRB, National Research Council, Washington D.C., pp. 27-32. Permanent International Association of Road Congress (PIARC), 1987, Report of the Committee on Surface Characteristics, Proceeding of 18th World Road Congress, Brussels, Belgium. 201 References Permanent International Association of Road Congresses (PIARC) (1995). Internatinoal PIARC Experiments to compare and Harmonize Texture and skid Resistance Measurements. PIARC Report 01.04T. PAIRC, Paris, France. Piyatrapoomi, N., J. Weligamage, A. Kumar and J. Bunker (2008). Identifying Relationship 12 between Skid Resistance and Road Crashes using Probability-Based Approach. Proceedings 13 of the 2nd International Safer Roads Conference, Cheltenham, England, UK. Sacia, S. R. (1976). The Effect of Operating Conditions on the Skid Performance of Tires, Transport Research Record,No. 621, pp. 126-135. Sahin, M. Y. (2005). Pavement Management For Airports, Roads, AND Parking Lots Second Edtion, Published by Springer. Sakai, H., Kanaya, O., and Okayama, T. (1978). The Effect of Hydroplaning on the Dynamic Characteristics of Car, Truck, and Bus Tires. SAE Paper No. 780195. Salt, G. F. (1977). Research on Skid Resistance at the Transport and Research Laboratory (1927-1977), Transportation Research Record, No. 622, pp. 26-38. Schlichting, H. (1960). Boundary Layer Theory, 4th Edition, McGraw-hill,Newyork. Sciences- National Academy of Engineering. Seta E, Nakajima Y, Kamegawa T and Ogawa H (2000). Hydroplaning Analysis by FEM and FVM: Effect of Tire Rolling and Tire Pattern on Hydroplaning, Tire Sci. and Technol., Volume 28, Issue 3, pp. 140-156. Shah, V. R., Henry, J. J. (1978). Determination of Skid Resistance-Speed Behavior and Side Force Coefficients of Pavements, In Transportation Research Record: Journal of the 202 References Transportation Research Board, No. 666, TRB, National Research Council, Washington D.C., pp. 13-18. Staughton, G .C. and Williams, T. (1970). Tyre Performance in Wet Surface Conditions, Road Research Laboratory Report LR 355. Streeter, V. L., E. B. Wylie and K. W. Bedford. (1998). Fluid Mechanics, 9th Ed. McGraw Hill, Singapore. Tanner, J. A. (1996). Computational Methods for Frictional Contact With Applications to the Space Shuttle Orbiter Nose-Gear Tire, NASA Technical Paper 3573, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Langley Research Center, Hampton, Virginia. Tayfur, G., Kavvas, M.L., Goindraju, R. S., and Stone, D. E. (1993). Applicability of St. Venant Equations for Two-Dimensional Overland Flows over Rough Inflitrating Surfaces, American Society of Civil Engineers Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, Vol. 119, N0. 1. Thurman, G. R., and Leasure, W. A. (1977). ―Noise and traction characteristics of bias ply and radial ply tires for heavy duty trucks.‖ Rep. No. DOT-TST-78-2, DOT/MVMA, Washington, D.C. Transit New Zealand (2000). State Highway Geometric Design Manual, Wellington, New Zealand. Tsakonas, S., C.J.Henry and W.R.Jacobs (1968). Hydrodynamics of Aircraft Tire Hydroplaning, NASA CR-1125, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Washington D. C. United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (2002). European Agreement on Main International Traffic Arteries (AGR), Geneva, Switzerland. 203 References Van Es, G.W.H. (2001). Hydroplaning, of modern aircraft tires, National Aerospace Laboratory, NLR-TP-2001-242. Veith, A.G. (1983). Tires – Roads – Rainfall – Vehicles: The Traction Connection. In Frictional Interaction of Tire and Pavement, ASTM STP 793, by W.E Meyer and J.D. Walter, Eds., American Society for Testing and Materials, pp – 40. Victoria Roads (VicRoads) and Roads and Traffic Authority (RTA) (1996) of New South Wales. Guide for the Measurement and Interpretation of Skid Resistance Using SCRIM. VicRoads, Victoria, Australia and RTA of New South Wales, Australia. Wallace, K. B. (1964). Airfield Pavement Skidding Characteristics. University of Melbourne, Australia. Wambold, J.C., Henry, J. J., and Hegmon, R. R. (1986) Skid Resistance of Wet-Weather Accident Sites. In The Tire Pavement Interface, ASTM STP 929, eds, by M.G. Pottinger and T.J. Yager, pp 47 – 60, Philadelphia: American Society for Testing and Materials. Wambold, J.C., Henry, J.J. and Yeh, E.C. (1984). Methodology for Analyzing Pavement Condition Data, report FHWA/RD-83/094 prepared by the Pennsylvania Transportation Institute. WHO (2004). Road Safety is no accident, Website: http://www.paho.org/English/DD/PIN/whd04_features.htm,(accessed on 15-08-07). WHO (2004). Road Safety is no accident, Yeager R. W. and Tuttle. J. L. (1972). Testing and Analysis of Tire Hydroplaning. In SAE National Automobile Engineering Meeting, Detroit, Michigan. 204 References Zhang, W. and Cundy, T. W. (1989). Modeling of Two Dimensional overland flow, Water Research Resources, Vol. 25, No. 9, pp. 2019-2035. Zmindak, M and I. Grajciar (1997). Simulation of the Aquaplane Problem, Computers and Structures, Vol. 64, N0. 5/6 pp. 1155-1164. 205 [...]... model on plane pavement 174 Figure 7.6 Comparison between experimental data and simulation 175 x Figure 7.7 Validation of truck tire simulation model on grooved pavement 176 Figure 7.8 Variation of traction force and fluid drag force at different speed 177 Figure 7.9 Relative contributions of traction force and fluid drag force towards skid resistance1 78 Figure 7.10 Hydroplaning speed variation with... literature on the mechanism of skid resistance and hydroplaning, and the different factors that affect hydroplaning and skid resistance It also identifies the areas of needed research  Chapter 3 provides the description about the development of a numerical model to measure the skid resistance and hydroplaning speed on grooved pavement  Chapter 4 presents the validation of the 3-dimensional finite element simulation. .. simulation model for skid resistance and hydroplaning analysis on grooved pavement surfaces for smooth passenger car tire  Chapter 5 characterizes variations in hydroplaning speeds and behavior of skid resistance of grooved pavements  Chapter 6 focuses on the prediction of stopping distance calculation based on the estimated skid resistance 3 Chapter 1  Chapter 7 presents the development and validation... dynamic hydroplaning and a dry contact zone exists with high shear stresses as shown in Figure 2.1 6 Chapter 2 2.1.1 Skid Resistance When a standard tire and standard test conditions are utilized in a measurement of wet- pavement traction, the results are reported as a measure of skid resistance of the pavement Skid resistance is therefore related to pavement characteristics and is a function of pavement. .. of pavement grooving have not been studied analytically 1.2 Objective The key objective of this research is to study quantitatively the beneficial effects of pavement grooving on vehicle hydroplaning and skid resistance using a numerical simulation model This will enable researchers and pavement engineers to better understand the mechanism of skid resistance and hydroplaning on vehicular tires on grooved. .. passenger car and truck tire skid resistances on grooved pavements with different groove dimensions under different operating conditions of wheel load, tire inflation pressure and water film thickness 1.4 Organization of Thesis The organization of the report would be as follows:  Chapter 1 provides the background of the study of hydroplaning and skid resistance, the objective and the scope of research... inflation pressure for longitudinally grooved pavements 179 Figure 7.11 Hydroplaning speed variation with tire inflation pressure for transversely grooved pavements 180 Figure 7.12 Hydroplaning speed variation with tire wheel load 181 Figure 7.13 Variation of skid resistance with sliding speed 182 Figure 7.14 Variation of skid resistance with tire inflation pressure 183 Figure 7.15 Variation of skid resistance. .. in skid resistance and increase in hydroplaning speed of creating pavement grooving in terms of groove depth, spacing and orientation are still unknown to the pavement engineer The research carried out by Ong et al (2006) on measurement of skid resistance evaluation provides a good insight into the hydroplaning and skid resistance mechanism on a smooth pavement surface However, the corresponding beneficial... This is followed by a review of the theoretical and empirical approaches adopted by researchers in modeling the skid resistance and hydroplaning problem Finally, a summary of the needs of research in the areas of skid resistance and hydroplaning studies, and proposed scope of study for the present research are presented 2.1 Mechanism of Skid Resistance and Hydroplaning Skid resistance is the shear force... of 3-dimensional model on longitudinally grooved pavement surface 94 Figure 4.3 Validation of 3-dimensional FLUENT model on transversely grooved pavement surface 95 Figure 4.4 3-Dimensional finite element ADINA simulation model for grooved pavement surface 96 Figure 4.5 Validation of ADINA model against experimental results for transversely grooved pavement surface 97 Figure 4.6 Validation of ADINA model . characteristics of hydroplaning and skid resistance of passenger cars and trucks on highway pavements by means of numerical simulation. The first part of research deals with the study of hydroplaning of. Effects of Vehicle Speed on Skid Resistance 163 7.5.5 Effects of Tire Inflation Pressure on Skid Resistance 164 7.5.6 Effects of Wheel Load on Skid Resistance 165 7.6 Summary 166 8 CONCLUSIONS AND. Truck Tire on Grooved Pavement 158 7.4 Mechanism of Skid Resistance 159 7.4.1 Forces Contributing to Skid Resistance 160 7.5 Variation Characteristics of Hydroplaning and Skid Resistance of Truck