HIGHLY CONDUCTIVE POLY(3,4-ETHYLENEDIOXYTHIOPHENE):POLY(STYR ENESULFONATE) (PEDOT:PSS) FILMS AND THEIR APPLICATION IN POLYMER PHOTOVOLTAIC DEVICES            XIA YIJIE               NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE 2011   HIGHLY CONDUCTIVE POLY(3,4-ETHYLENEDIOXYTHIOPHENE):POLY(STYR ENESULFONATE) (PEDOT:PSS) FILMS AND THEIR APPLICATION IN POLYMER PHOTOVOLTAIC DEVICES         XIA YIJIE  (M. Sci, Fudan Univ.)         A THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY DEPARTMENT OF MATERIALS SCIENCE & ENGINEERING NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE 2011 Acknowledgements  My deepest gratitude goes first and foremost to Assistant Professor Ouyang Jianyong, my supervisor, for his invaluable guidance and encouragement during my candidature. Due to his abundant academic experience and insightful intuition, discussing with him has always brought about refreshing ideas. It was extremely pleasant to be working with him. Over the years, I have benefited tremendously from his emphasis on critical thinking and encouragements to innovate. His keen and vigorous academic observation enlightens me not only in this thesis but also in my future study. I will always appreciate the friendship and support of my group members. Special thanks go to Dr. Zhang Hongmei for her great efforts in the polymer photovoltaic devices fabrication. She helped and taught me how to fabricate and characterize polymer photovoltaic devices and generously shared tips on the design and conduction of experiments. I would like to extend my thanks to other group members: Dr. Wu Zhonglian, Mr. Fan Benhu, Dr. Li Aiyuan, Dr. Zhou Dan, Mr. Mei Xiaoguang, Mr. Sun Kuan, Ms. Cho Swee Jen and Mr. Neo Chin Yong. Their invaluable suggestions, persistent research assistance and unfailing support are important to my research. i I would like to thank to our department staffs. They have always been helpful, providing trainings and guidance for utilizing the technical facilities. Finally, I am deeply indebted to my parents for their unconditional love and to my husband for his endless support and loving care. December 2010 in Singapore ii Xia Yijie Table of Contents Acknowledgements .i Table of Contents . iii Summary .v List of Tables . viii List of Figures ix List of Publications xvii Chapter Introduction .1 1.1 A brief overview of conducting polymers .1 1.1.1 Historical background of conducting polymers 1.1.2 Electrical properties of conducting polymers .4 1.2 Background and development of PEDOT:PSS .10 1.2.1 Background of PEDOT:PSS .10 1.2.2 Charge transport properties of PEDOT:PSS .12 1.2.3 Development of PEDOT:PSS .13 1.3 Applications for PEDOT:PSS in polymer photovoltaic devices .15 1.4 Objectives and outline of this thesis .19 Chapter Salt-induced significant conductivity enhancement of PEDOT:PSS films .22 2.1 Introduction .22 2.2 Experimental procedure 23 2.3 Results and discussion 26 2.3.1 Metal ion effect on conductivity enhancement .26 2.3.2 Anion effect on conductivity enhancement .43 2.3.3 Application of highly conductive PEDOT:PSS in polymer PVs 58 2.4 Conclusions .61 iii Chapter Highly conductive PEDOT:PSS films prepared through a treatment with zwitterions 63 3.1 Introduction .63 3.2 Experimental procedure 64 3.3 Results and discussion 65 3.3.1 Zwitterion-induced conductivity enhancement of PEDOT:PSS films .65 3.3.2 Mechanism for zwitterion-induced conductivity enhancement 69 3.3.3 Application of highly conductive PEDOT:PSS in polymer PVs 77 3.5 Conclusions .82 Chapter Significant conductivity enhancement of PEDOT:PSS films through a treatment with organic carboxylic acids and inorganic acids 84 4.1 Introduction .84 4.2 Experimental procedure 85 4.3 Results and discussion 86 4.3.1 Conductivity enhancement of PEDOT:PSS by acid treatment .86 4.3.2 Mechanism for conductivity enhancement .103 4.3.3 Application of highly conductive PEDOT:PSS in polymer PVs 108 4.4 Conclusions . 111 Chapter PEDOT:PSS films with high conductivities induced by preferential solvation with cosolvents . 112 5.1 Introduction .112 5.2 Experimental procedure 113 5.3 Results and discussion 114 5.3.1 Cosolvent-induced conductivity enhancement of PEDOT:PSS films 114 5.3.2 Characterization of PEDOT:PSS films .122 5.3.3 Mechanism for cosolvent-induced conductivity enhancement .129 5.3.4 Application of high-conductivity PEDOT:PSS in polymer PVs .136 5.4 Conclusions .139 Chapter Concluding remarks .140 6.1 Summary of results .140 6.2 Future work .143 Bibliography .145 iv Summary New transparent conductive materials are urgently needed to replace indium tin oxide (ITO) as the transparent electrode of optoelectronic devices. Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrenesulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS) is a quite promising candidate as the next-generation transparent electrode in optoelectronic devices. However, as-prepared PEDOT:PSS from its aqueous solution suffers a problem of low conductivity of [...]... PEDOT:PSS and its applications in polymer photovoltaic devices The objectives of my research work and the outline of this thesis will be presented in the end 1.1 A brief overview of conducting polymers 1.1.1 Historical background of conducting polymers Conducting polymers have been attracting strong interest since the discovery of 1 1 Introduction conducting polymers by Shirakawa, MacDiarmid, and Heeger in. .. readily in air They are infusible and insoluble in solvents, making it difficult to process them These drawbacks severely impede their application People have been searching for conducting polymers that are highly conductive, stable and easily processable Conducting polymers with heteroatom, such as polyaniline (PANI), polypyrrole (PPy), and polythiophene (PTs), have good stability when in the conductive. .. the application of conducting polymers in many areas Besides the conventional coating, such as drop casting and spin coating, inkjet printing and stamp printing were also developed to process conducting polymers These methods can produce conducting polymers with desirable pattern at a low fabrication cost Compared with inorganic conducting polymers, conducting polymers have high mechanical flexibility... Conducting polymers have been attracting great attention in the past decade due to their advantages of light weight, high mechanical flexibility, and simple solution processing In addition, their electronic properties can be tuned by manipulating the chemical structure, the alignment of polymer chains, and doping conditions [8] The solution processability is crucial for the application of conducting polymers... Applied Materials & Interfaces, 2010, 2: 474 4 Y J Xia and J Y Ouyang Anion effect on salt-induced conductivity enhancement of poly( 3,4- ethylenedioxythiophene): poly( styrenesulfonate) films Organic Electronics, 2010, 11: 1129 5 Y J Xia, H M Zhang and J Y Ouyang Highly Conductive PEDOT:PSS Films Prepared through a Treatment with Zwitterions and Their Application as Transparent Anode of Polymer Photovoltaic. .. Prize in Chemistry in 2000 for this discovery [1,2] The early study on conducting polymers was focusing on polyacetylenes (PAs) PA is a conjugated polymer and is an insulator in the neutral state It becomes highly conductive in the oxidized or reduced state (Figure 1.1) The conductivity of the oxidized PAs can be as high as 105 S/cm, comparable to that of copper Conducting polymers should have wide application. .. from the band edges in polypyrrole [13] With continued doping, bipolaron states form into two continuous bipolaron bands The width of the bipolaron bands in highly doped polypyrrole is about 0.4 eV [13] The band gap also increases as newly formed bipolarons are made at the expense of the band edges For a very heavily doped polymer, it is conceivable that the upper and the lower bipolaron bands will... PEDOT:PSS film 14 1 Introduction 1.3 Applications for PEDOT:PSS in polymer photovoltaic devices Highly conductive PEDOT:PSS can replace ITO as the transparent electrode of optoelectronic devices This application was demonstrated in polymer photovoltaic cells Today, solar cells become one of the most focused research areas due to energy crisis and environmental problems Polymer- based organic photovoltaic systems... characteristics of polymer PVs glass|PEDOT:PSS|P3HT:PCBM|LiF|Al in dark and under illumination The PEDOT:PSS films were treated with cosolvents of 80% ethanol-20% water and 80% ACN-20% water, respectively 138 xvi List of Publications 1 Y J Xia and J Y Ouyang Salt-Induced Charge Screening and Significant Conductivity Enhancement of Conducting Poly( 3,4- ethylenedioxythiophene): Poly( styrenesulfonate)... conducting polymers and other materials, reproduced from [9] The conduction mechanism of conducting polymers is different from that of metals and inorganic semiconductors It is related to the conjugated π orbitals along the main chain The two pz orbitals of two neighbour atoms form into a bonding (π) orbital and an antibonding (π*) orbital The electrons on the π orbitals are mobile and delocalize The π and . UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE 2011  HIGHLY CONDUCTIVE POLY( 3,4- ETHYLENEDIOXYTHIOPHENE): POLY( STYR ENESULFONATE) (PEDOT: PSS) FILMS AND THEIR APPLICATION IN POLYMER PHOTOVOLTAIC DEVICES     XIAYIJIE (M  HIGHLY CONDUCTIVE POLY( 3,4- ETHYLENEDIOXYTHIOPHENE): POLY( STYR ENESULFONATE) (PEDOT: PSS) FILMS AND THEIR APPLICATION IN POLYMER PHOTOVOLTAIC DEVICES       XIA YIJIE. providing trainings and guidance for utilizing the technical facilities. Finally, I am deeply indebted to my parents for their unconditional love and to my husband for his endless support and