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Basics of Environmental Science Basics of Environmental Science is an engaging introduction to environmental study The book offers everyone studying and interested in the environment, an essential understanding of natural environments and the way they function It covers the entire breadth of the environmental sciences, providing concise, non-technical explanations of physical processes and systems and the effects of human activities In this second edition, the scientific background to major environmental issues is clearly explained These include global warming, genetically modified foods, desertification, acid rain, deforestation, human population growth, depleting resources and nuclear power generation There are also descriptions of the 10 major biomes Michael Allaby is the author or co-author of more than 60 books, most on various aspects of environmental science In addition he has also edited or co-edited seven scientific dictionaries and edited an anthology of writing about the environment Basics of Environmental Science 2nd Edition Michael Allaby London and New York First published 1996 by Routledge 11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001 Second edition 2000 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2002 © 1996, 2000 Michael Allaby The right of Michael Allaby to be identified as the Author of this Work has been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress ISBN 0-415-21175-1 (hbk) 0-415-21176-X (pbk) ISBN 0-203-13752-3 Master e-book ISBN ISBN 0-203-17969-2 (Glassbook Format) Contents List of Figures List of Tables Preface to the Second Edition How to Use This Book vii xi xiii xiii Introduction What is environmental science? Environmental interactions, cycles, and systems Ecology and environmentalism History of environmental science Changing attitudes to the natural world Further reading Notes References 1 10 13 17 17 17 Earth Sciences Formation and structure of the Earth The formation of rocks, minerals, and geologic structures Weathering The evolution of landforms 10 Coasts, estuaries, sea levels 11 Energy from the Sun 12 Albedo and heat capacity 13 The greenhouse effect 14 The evolution, composition, and structure of the atmosphere 15 General circulation of the atmosphere 16 Oceans, gyres, currents 17 Weather and climate 18 Glacials, interglacials, and interstadials 19 Dating methods 20 Climate change 21 Climatic regions and floristic regions Further reading Notes References 19 19 23 27 30 34 37 42 44 51 54 59 64 68 73 76 81 86 87 87 Physical Resources 22 Fresh water and the hydrologic cycle 23 Eutrophication and the life cycle of lakes 24 Salt water, brackish water, and desalination 25 Irrigation, waterlogging, and salinization 26 Soil formation, ageing, and taxonomy 27 Transport by water and wind 28 Soil, climate, and land use 29 Soil erosion and its control 30 Mining and processing of fuels 31 Mining and processing of minerals Further reading Note References 90 90 95 99 103 107 111 115 119 123 130 135 135 135 Contents / v Biosphere 32 Biosphere, biomes, biogeography 33 Major biomes 34 Nutrient cycles 35 Respiration and photosynthesis 36 Trophic relationships 37 Energy, numbers, biomass 38 Ecosystems 39 Succession and climax 40 Arrested successions 41 Colonization 42 Stability, instability, and reproductive strategies 43 Simplicity and diversity 44 Homoeostasis, feedback, regulation 45 Limits of tolerance Further reading References 137 137 141 147 151 151 160 163 168 172 176 179 183 188 192 197 197 Biological Resources 46 Evolution 47 Evolutionary strategies and game theory 48 Adaptation 49 Dispersal mechanisms 50 Wildlife species and habitats 51 Biodiversity 52 Fisheries 53 Forests 54 Farming for food and fibre 55 Human populations and demographic change 56 Genetic engineering Further reading Notes References 200 200 206 210 214 218 222 227 233 239 249 250 257 257 258 Environmental Management 57 Wildlife conservation 58 Zoos, nature reserves, wilderness 59 Pest control 60 Restoration ecology 61 World conservation strategies 62 Pollution control 63 Hazardous waste 64 Transnational pollution Further reading References 261 261 265 269 274 237 281 287 288 296 296 End of book summary 298 Glossary 300 Bibliography 307 Index 316 vi / Contents Figures 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 2.14 2.15 2.16 2.17 2.18 2.19 2.20 2.21 2.22 2.23 2.24 2.25 2.26 2.27 2.28 2.29 2.30 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 Structure of the Earth Plate structure of the Earth and seismically active zones The mountain-forming events in Europe Stages in the development of an unconformity Gradation of clay and sand to laterite Slope development Drainage patterns Deposition of sand and formation of an estuarine sand bar The development of a sea cliff, wave-cut platform, and wave-built terrace Average amount of solar radiation reaching the ground surface Absorption, reflection, and utilization of solar energy The greenhouse effect Anticipated changes in concentration of three greenhouse gases IPCC estimates of climate change if atmospheric CO doubles Structure of the atmosphere Chemical composition of the atmosphere with height Seasons and the Earth’s orbit General circulation of the atmosphere The development of cells in jet streams and high-level westerlies Weather changes associated with El Niño-Southern Oscillation events Ocean currents Formation of cloud at a front Distribution of cloud around frontal systems Parts of the Earth covered by ice at some time during the past million years Temperature changes since the last glacial maximum Orbital stretch Wobble of the Earth’s axis Variations in axial tilt (obliquity of the ecliptic) World climate types Floristic regions Water abstraction Principal cities bordering the Rhine The Rhine basin, draining land in six countries The life cycle of a lake Evolution of a lake into dry land, marsh, or bog Multistage flash evaporation Mole drainage Saltwater intrusion into a freshwater aquifer Soil drainage Profile of a typical fertile soil Flood plain development from meander system Modern soil developed over flood plain alluvium and glacial till 20 22 25 26 29 32 33 35 37 39 40 45 47 48 52 55 56 58 58 60 62 67 67 70 71 77 77 78 82 84 91 93 94 98 99 102 105 108 108 109 114 114 List of Figures / vii 3.13 3.14 3.15 3.16 3.17 3.18 3.19 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 4.17 4.18 4.19 4.20 4.21 4.22 4.23 4.24 4.25 4.26 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 5.16 Profiles of four soils, with the vegetation associated with them World distribution of soil orders Two types of terracing for reducing runoff Effect of a windbreak in reducing wind speed Types of coal mines Structural oil and gas traps Blast furnace and steel converter Biomes and climate Marine zones and continental margin The nitrogen cycle The carbon cycle Photosynthesis Simplified food web in a pond Simplified heathland food web Pyramid of numbers per 1000 m2 of temperate grassland Flow of energy and nutrients Ecosystem Forest stratification Succession to broad-leaved woodland Succession from a lake, through bog, to forest The effect of fire on species diversity Effect of grazing on succession Establishment of colonizers in an area of habitat Island colonization as a ratio of immigration to extinction Population growth and density J-and S-shaped population growth curves Resilience and stability The edge effect Speed governor of a steam engine Feedback regulation of a population Density-dependent feedback regulation Limits of tolerance and optimum conditions Plant response to temperature Effects of natural selection Mendelian inheritance The Prisoner’s Dilemma Optimum foraging strategy Adaptive radiation of Darwin’s finches Adaptation by mangroves to different levels of flooding Common pattern for passive dispersal Expansion of the European starling’s range in North America 1915–50 Habitats in a pond Population size needed for a 95 per cent probability of persisting 100 years Species richness Range and population increase World fisheries catch (marine and freshwater) 1972–92 North Sea herring stocks 1960–90 Commercial fishing methods Percentage of land area under forest in various countries viii / List of Figures 116 118 122 123 124 126 133 139 140 148 149 154 158 159 161 162 165 167 169 170 173 175 177 178 181 182 186 187 189 190 191 193 195 204 205 206 208 211 212 215 218 220 221 225 226 228 230 231 234 5.17 5.18 5.19 5.20 5.21 5.22 5.23 5.24 5.25 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13 6.14 6.15 Tree cover in the British Isles about three thousand years ago Traditional tree management Ploughing and sowing Indices of per capita food production 1990–94 World production of cereals during the 1990s Rate of world population growth World population 1850–2025 (median estimate) Estimates of the rate of global population increase since 1975 One method of genetic engineering Effects on a population of fragmentation of habitat Population structure for three species within a habitat Island wildlife refuges Pesticide use and crop yield Even-sized droplets from the teeth of an ultra-low-volume pesticide sprayer A hand-held ultra-low-volume sprayer Florida, showing the location of the Everglades Living resources and population Resource consumption by rich and poor Kondratieff cycles Government assistance for environmental technologies in the EU 1988–90 Private investment in pollution control during the 1970s and 1980s Carbon dioxide emissions in 1988 Acid rain distribution Countries bordering the Mediterranean 236 237 240 243 244 246 248 249 252 261 263 267 270 271 272 275 278 278 280 284 285 286 290 292 6.16 Areas included in the UNEP Regional Seas Programme 293 List of Figures / ix