Audit firm, corporate governance, and audit quality: Evidence from Bahrain Jasim Al-Ajmi ⁎ Department of Economics and Finance, College of Business Administration, University of Bahrain, P. O. Box 32038, Bahrain abstractarticle info The aim of this research is to document the perceptions of credit and financial analysts with regard to the relationship between the effectiveness of audit committee, size of the auditing firm and audit quality in the context of Bahrain, which is characterized by a developed financial sector, low-liquidity stock market, low turnover in board of directors of listed firms, an inactive merger and acquisitions market and almost non-extent litigation. A survey of 300 credit and financial analysts shows that analysts considered auditors' opinion useful. Both credit and financial analysts see the credibility of financial statements to be a function of the size of the auditing firm. Both groups assume that the characteristics of Big-Four firms allow them to produce better-quality reports than non-Big firms. Non-audit services were found to affect auditor's independence and hence impair audit quality. Both the groups of analysts believe that effective audit committee enhances the quality of audit reports. Financial analysts perceive financial statements to be more credible than do credit analysts. © 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction Audit service is perceived to play an important role in reducing information asymmetry (Beatty, 1989; Willenborg, 1999) as well as in mitigating agency problems between managers and shareholders and between shareholders and creditors ( Jensen & Meckling, 1976). Therefore, owners hire auditors to produce information used in contracting with managers (Antle, 1982; Watts & Zimmerman, 1986). Meeting these two roles depend on audit quality. While audit quality is considered an important element of corporate governance, it is unclear whether audit qualityand otheraspects ofcorporate governance (such as director knowledge and independence) are fundamentally complements or substitutes, according to Defond and Francis (2005). Audit quality is a concept that has different definitions for different people. DeAngelo (1981a) hypothesizes a two-dimensional definition of audit quality that has set the standard for addressing the issue. First, a material misstatement must be detected, and second, the material misstatement must be reported. Audit quality as such is the increasing function of the ability of an auditor to detect accounting misstatements and is related to the degree of auditor independence. Titman and Trueman (1986) propose that a good auditor provides precise informa- tion regarding the firm's value. Because the purpose of an audit is to provide assurance as regards the financial statements, audit quality is defined by Palmrose (1988) as the probability that financial statements contain no material misstatements. Davidson and Neu (1993) define audit quality asthe ability of the auditor to detect and eliminate material misstatements and manipulations in the net income reported. Users of financial statements perceived audit reports to provide absolute assurance that company financial statements have no material misstatements and do not perpetrate fraud (Epstein & Geiger, 1994). However, auditors perceive audit quality in terms of strict adherence to GAAS/ISA requirements. Auditors working with a companyalso strive to reduce their business risk by minimizing auditees' dissatisfaction, avoiding litigation, and limiting the damage to their reputation, which could result from audit failure. The demise of Arthur Andersen in 2002 is an example of the ultimate results of audit failure. Reg ar d less of any differences in the definition of audit quality, and even when users and providers of audit services question the quality of audit service, they agree on its importance. I ackno wledge that measuring audit quality is problematic. The quality of an audit is not directly or immediately obvious, e specially to cr editors and in vest ors. Audit quality- control procedures are intended to maintain high standards of control over the process of an audit, but an audit failur e usual l y b ecomes know n only in the case of a business failure; witness Enron. An auditor's role is to assuage agency problems resulting from the separation of ownership and control (management). This role can be successful only if an audit opinion reflects the true findings of the audit engagement. According to the Statement of Financial Accounting Concepts No. 1 (SFAC No. 1, Paragraph No. 8, p. 9), “financial statements are often audited by independent accountants for the purpose of enhancing confidence in their reliability.” American I nstitute o f Certified Public Accountants (AICPA) (1994) al so ackno wled ges th e importanc e of consideri ng perc epti ons of inv est ors on auditor independence. A former chairman of the AICP A, Elliott (2000) Advances in Accounting, incorporating Advances in International Accounting 25 (2009) 64–74 ⁎ Tel.: +973 39444284; fax: +973 17449776. E-mail address: jasimalajmi@yahoo.com. 0882-6110/$ – see front matter © 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.adiac.2009.02.005 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Advances in Accounting, incorporating Advances in International Accounting journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/adiac says “[The AICPA] believe[s] that appearances are v ery important and capital markets requir e confidence in financial statements and audit reports, and the member firms of the AICP A are basing their business of auditing on thei r reputations, a nd that is heavily affected b y appearance.” Despite consider able r esearch o n audit q uality, studies o n audit q uali ty in Bahrain are scarce. This might be due to the relatively low number of audit failures. Since the establishment of the first shareholding companies until 2008, there were only three reported cases of audit failure. These cases inv olv e the G enera l T ra ding and F oo d Proc essing Company ( 1994), the Bahrain Islamic Investment Compan y (2002), and the Bahrain Saudi Bank (2002). The fraud involved in the first case was carried out by the company's a ccountant, and the court ruled ag ainst the accountant. A s for the second company , the case was settled out-of-court, and the partner invol v ed in the case was asked to leave the firm, whereas the third instance resulted in replacement of the audit ors without the audit ors being taken to court. The low number of reported cases of audit failures does not ensure that audits of Bahr aini listed firms are of good quality and should n ot m ean t h at user s of company r e ports sh ould be complacent as to the quality of an audi t. Ther efor e, this study in v estigates the wa y u sers of financial statements determine the quality of audit reports. Accordingly , asurveyofthemajorusersoffinancial statem ents (in vest ors and lenders) with respect to their perceptions of the factors that determine audit quality, particularl y with respect to the impact of corporat e gov ernance and size of audit firms on the q uality o f an audit report, is carried out. This research makes three contributions to the literature. First, although most of the research in the area uses different methodologies to investigate the determinants and the role of audit quality on integrity and quality of accounting information, studies on markets such as Bahrain, which is characterized by dominance of few accounting firms; largely uncommon cases of switching audit firms; weak enforcement of regulation reverent to audit industry, with exception of those related to financial institutions; low-liquidity stock market; and considerably less number of different institutional setup. Hence, this research provides additional insights to audit quality. Second, it responds to calls for empirical testing of the relationship between corporate governance and audit quality, according to Defond and Francis (2005). Third, Defond and Francis (2005) argue that research on the effectiveness of audit committee suffer from a number of problems such as weak statistical explanatory power and multi-colinearity problem. A survey method that asks respondents to state their perception of the effect of effective audit committee on audit quality overcomes these problems. The remaining part of the article is organized into four sections. The following section provides brief accounts of the audit market in Bahrain. Section 3 offers brief literature review on the relationship between effectiveness of audit committee, firm's size, and audit quality. Section 4 describes the data collection and research methodology. Section 5 presents the research findings of questionnaire survey. The final section provides conclusions of the study, its implications, and suggestions for future research. 2. Audit market in Bahrain 1 Some important features of the audit market in Bahrain must be understood to perceive the context in which this study was undertaken. As of the end of February 2008, audit services in Bahrain are provided by 24 accounting firms. Five of these are considered local; four are operating as foreign branches; and the remaining are linked to international firms. The Big Four; i.e., Ernst & Young (E&Y), Deloitte & Touche (D&T), KPMG, and PricewaterhouseCoopers (PWC) have a strong presence in Bahrain. D&T and KPMG operate as a joint venture, whereas the other two operate as branches of international firms. BDO Jawad Habib and E&Y are the only two firms registered with the United States (US) Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (PCAOB). The Bahrain Stock Exchange (BSE) was established in June 1989. As of July 2007, there were 41 listed Bahraini incorporated firms (two of these have been de-listed and did not issue their reports of 2006). The majority of the companies are retail banks, wholesale banks, and investment companies. The Central Bank of Bahrain (CBB) requires financial institutions to be audited by one of the big audit firms. Audit services are regulated by the Amiri Decree Number 26 of 1996, which requires auditors to obtain a license to practice and set the minimum requirements for a license. In effect, audit firms got two licenses, one to practice auditing and the second specifically to offer auditing services to financial institutions. Appointments of auditors, as per article (205) paragraph (e) of the Bahrain Commercial Companies Law Number 21 of 2001, should be made on a yearly basis at firm annual stockholder meetings. However in practice, boards of directors are empowered by annual meetings to appoint auditors and to determine their remuneration. This practice is subject to criticism on the grounds that an auditor's role is to miti- gate agency problems that might exist between the board and the shareholders. The CBB's authority is based on article, (61) paragraph (a), of The Central Bank of Bahrain and Financial Institutions Law Number 64 of 2006, which states: “Every Licensee shall appoint one or more qualified and experienced external auditors for its accounts for every financial year. Prior written approval by the Central Bank will be required before appointing an auditor.” This approval is needed annually. In cases wherein a decision has been taken to replace the external auditors before the end of the year, the respective financial institutions are also required to inform the CBB about the reasons for this decision. Since 2002, only three of the Big Four have been approved to audit the financial statements of the locally incorporated banks. Exclusion firm of the Fourth came after its audit failure of the financial statements of locally incorporated retail banks. CBB guidelines specify experience of the auditors, experience of the firm, and number of partners, among other requirements. Currently, only Big Four firms audit small financial institutions. The internal guidelines of the CBB allow non-big firms to audit small investment companies. As of September 2007, Bahraini incorpo- rated financial and non- financial firms listed on the Bahrain Stock exchange are audited by five companies, the Big Four and one other company, which is connected with aninternational firm. The other two companies are a joint venture between a local audit firm and regional or international companies. Unlike some other countries in the region where listed firms are audited by two audit firms, all companies in Bahrain are audited by only one audit firm. Audit services industry is dominated by the Big Four. A total of 82.5% of the 41 listed companies on the BSE that published their annual reports in 2007 are audited by one of the Big Four, and the other 17.5% are audited by a non-Big Firm company. In Bahrain, it is not mandatory to switch audit firms. In fact, in 2006, the CBB took a position against a motion in the parliament to mandate such a requirement on the ground that small markets are distorted by such decisions. Experience has shown that switching of audit firms takes place in very rare cases and generally occurs only after an audit failure. The CBB does require auditors of financial institutions to switch auditing partners at least every five years. Auditing firms claim that 1 Most of the contents of this section are based on interviews with the following persons: Adnan Yusuf, Chief Executive Officer of Albarka Banking Group; Ibrahim Zainal, Chairman of TRAFCO; Jamal Fakhro, CPA (US), Managing Partner of KPMG Fakhro and Ex-Chairman of the Bahrain Accountants Association (BAA); Elham Hasan, CPA (US), Managing partner of PWC-Bahrain; Abbas Radhi, CPA (US), a partner from BDO Jawad Habib, and Chairman of the BAA; Hameed Rahma, Assistant Undersecretary for domestic trade at the Ministry of Industry and Commerce; Jassim Abdulaal, CA (UK), Senior Partner, Grand Thornton-Gulf Audi-Bahrain; Yusuf Hassan, director of bank supervision at the Central Bank of Bahrain (CBB); Khalil Noor Eldeen, CFA, Ex- investment banker, Ex-director of BIBF, and a member of the audit committee of Ethmar Bank Group; and Waleed Bangash, CA (UK), Director, Financial Control (Strategic Planning), Unicorn Investment bank. The interviews took place between the 5th of January and the 4th of March, 2008. 65J. Al-Ajmi / Advances in Accounting, incorporating Advances in International Accounting 25 (2009) 64–74 they follow such apractice for other firms in accordance withtheir own internal policies. Auditors are not prevented from joining a client firm at any time, even immediately after formulating an audit opinion. The presence of multinational firms and international financial institutions in Bahrain, the government's long-standing policy of attracting foreign investment, the effect of globalization, and the size of the Bahrain economy are possible reasons for the nondevelopment of local accounting and auditing standards. As a result, companies in Bahrain are required to comply with international financial reporting standards (IFRS), whereas accounting firms must comply with the international standards on auditing (ISA). These requirements apply to all companies, including financial institutions. The latter are required to comply with the financial accounting standards issued by the Accounting and Auditing Organization for Islamic Financial Institutions (AAOIFI). However, in accordance with the requirements of AAOIFI, for matters on which AAOIFI standards do not exist, the respective institutions are required to comply with the relevant IFRS. This is also applicable to conventional bank licensee units. Require- ment to comply with the IFRS and ISA are perceived by both the government and the accounting firms as the basis for the competitive advantage that Bahrain enjoys. As in many other countries, the practice in Bahrain is that accounting firms should sign the audit reports and not the partners who supervise the audit engagements. This is due to the lack of legal sanction for the auditors of companies operating in Bahrain to sign the audit report in their own names. Article (19) of the Amiri Decree No. 26 of 1996 gives auditors the choice to sign the audit reports using either their names or the name of the company. Chairmen and chief executive officers sign the company(ies)'s reports as representatives of the respective board(s) of directors. As such, they assume no more personal responsibility than other members on the boards. All listed and unlisted financial institutions are required to form independent audit committees. Listed non-financial firms are not required by law to form such committees. Members of the audit committees of financial institutions are nominated by the boards; however, they need to be approved by the CBB. However, whether the criteria that the CBB uses for its approval include an assurance of independence and knowledge or merely an affirmation of the latter is not clear. The principles of Auditor Oversight iss ued by the International Organization of Securities Commissions (IOSCO) in 2002 state that audit quality is an important requirement for the integrity of financial statements. Howev er, Bahrain lacks a formal independent audit over- sight regulating authority, similar to the PCAOB in the US. The establishment of such an institution is considered the best practice internationally, as it provides one of the mechanisms that increase confidenc e in the quality of an audit (International Audit Networks (IANs), 2006). IANs recognize that the establishment of independent audit oversight regimes have reinforced the independence of auditors, and in their view, improved the governance and regulation of the auditing profession. They state that independent audit oversight regimes hav e led to audit firms emphasizing on the quality of the audit. The need for ha vi ng an au dit oversight i n Ba hr ain is aview that is shared b y m ost of those interview ed for the purpose of writing this section. Furthermore, peer review for other companies is uncommon in Bahrain. The Ministry of Industry and Commerce (MIC) as per article (27) establishes a disciplinary committee composed of the Chairman, who should be a judge from the Civil High Court, appointed by the Minster for Justice, and two other members, who are specialists in auditing, appointed by the MIC. The disciplinary committee investigates the cases referred by the MIC for misconduct, violations of professional requirements, serious negligence, or violations of the Amiri Decree No. 26 of 1996. However, there are no public records available regarding the referred cases. Previous experience shows that litigation risk is very low in Bahrain. In the corporate history of Bahrain, there are neither publicly announced out-of-court settlements between the auditors and their clients nor court judgments against erring auditors. However, there is one case pending against the auditors belonging to one of the non-Big Four firms. No decision has yet been arrived at, even though it dates back to the mid-1990s. Another case involving E&Y was settled out-of-court, and the partner involved in the case was asked to leave the firm. However, the low number of litigation cases should not be seen as an indicator of high audit quality in Bahrain. The fewer cases of litigation might be due to the high cost, weak regulation, less efficient court system, the difficulties of bringing such cases to the court, and passive investors. However, this situation changed after the audit failure of the Bahrain Saudi Bank. The role of the CBB in maintaining the stability of the financial system ensures the maintenance of a certain level of audit quality during the auditing of financial institutions. Furthermore, as the number of foreign investors increase, raising the awareness of investors, enhancing the efficiency of the judiciary system, increasing the probability of materialization of risk, increased government privatiza- tion programs, and reduction of government ownership in listed firms are likely to increase the probability of materialization of litigation risk. Restatements of earnings are uncommon in Bahrain. The only restatement between 1957 and 2007 in the financial statements of listed companies was in 1994 when the newly appointed auditors restated the profit figures of the General Trading and Food Processing Company. In Bahrain, it is common to outsource internal audit services to audit firms. Firms thus avoid the cost of creating an internal audit department with expertise that is not used during the year. The CBB prohibits external auditors from providing routine internal audit services to their clients. OM2.7.2 of the Operational Risk Management guidelines states that “The [CBB] will generally not permit licensees to outsource their internal audit function to the same firm that acts as their external auditors. However, the [CBB] may allow short-term outsourcing of internal audit operations to a licensee's external auditor, to meet unexpected urgent or short-term needs (for instance, on account of staff resignation or illness). Any such arrangement will normally be limited to a maximum of one year.” Universities in Bahrain use American textbooks in their business programs, including textbooks on accounting. Bahrain University, the biggest and the only public university, has a policy that dictates professors teaching at the college of business to have been educated in western universities. Furthermore, auditors and analysts are expected to seek professional qualifications from the US and the United Kingdom (UK). Advertisements on the websites of financial institu- tions and in newspapers seeking new staff statethat applicants need to possess professional qualifications obtained from the US and the UK; this policy seems to be followed by both the government and the private sector. For example, the Labor Fund of Bahrain (www.lf.com), which is the government arm for training, awarded two contracts to BDO Jawad Habib and Earnest & Yong in 2007, worth 14.1 million Bahraini Dinars (US$37.4 million), to train 720 0 Bahrainis for obtaining American and British accounting qualifications. The human resources development fund (HRD Fund) (www.hrdfund.org) and the Bahrain Institute of Banking and Finance (BIBF), the banks' arms for training their staff, offer funding for and provide training for their staff only for acquiring professional qualifications from the US and UK. This policy is also followed by audit firms that require their local staff to seek their professional qualifications from these two countries. Unlike in the US, there is no professional body in Bahrain to play a role similar to that of AICPA. The Bahrain Accountants Association (BAA), which was established in 1972 as anongovernmental organization, has a very minimal role in the further development of the profession. Its activities are limited to workshops, seminars, and public lectures. Membership in the BAA is voluntary. Despite thousands of accountants qualifying for membership into the BAA, including all holders of an undergraduate degree in Accounting, the number of members at the end of January 2007 was only around 250, among whom, the active members were very few. 66 J. Al-Ajmi / Advances in Accounting, incorporating Advances in International Accounting 25 (2009) 64–74 3. Brief literature review Watkins, Hillison, and Morecroft (2004) summarize both theore- tical and empirical work on audit quality from DeAngelo (1981b) through 2002. Francis (2004) offers an excellent review of published empirical attempts over a quarter century beginning in 1981. Defond and Francis (2005) offer a critical review of audit quality literature after 2002. Besides these three studies, a brief review that presents the salient feature of the relationship between firm size, corporate governance, and audit quality is imperative to set the ground for the stage for the author's survey results. The relationship betweenthe audit-firm sizeand the qualityof audit- reporting decisions has been widely investigated; however, the results are not conclusive. Although extensive empirical evidence suggests that the Big Four firms provide higher quality audits (DeAngelo (1981b), Palmrose (1988), Deis and Giroux (1992), Mutchler, Hopwood, and McKeown (1 99 7), Krishnan and Schauer (2000), Fuerman (2004),there is other evidence to suggest that no differences in quality exist between the Big and non-Big audit firms (Jeong and Rho (2004) and Khurana an d Raman (2004). Krishnan (2005) comments that audit quality differs between and within the various audit firms. These results might have an important implication for the perception of investors and lenders about the quality of audit reports. A number of reasons are used to explain the positive effect of audit- firm size on audit quality. Audit quality is a function of how well an audit team functions, and presumably firms perform best based on the following criteria: 1. a v ailabil ity of adequat e reso urce s (human and technology) (DeAngelo, 1981b; F rantz, 1999); 2. control systems of high standard; 3. larger firms are more independent of their clients (DeAngelo, 1981b); 4. large firms have a considerable business at stake if they lose their reputations (DeAngelo, 1981b); 5. charging higher audit fees that allow them to spend more time and effort in each audit engagement (Francis, 200 4; Goodwin-Stewart & Kent, 2006); and 6. high significant economic costs imposed on the auditor in the event of audit failure (DeAngelo, 1981b). Auditor independence from the client's management is considered as one of the prerequisites for a good-quality audit. Several definitions can be found for the independence of the auditor. Among them are the following: “the conditional probability of reporting a discovered breach” (DeAngelo, 1981a ,p.186);“t he ability to resist client pressure” (Knapp, 1985); “a function of character—with characteristics of integrity and trustworthiness being essential” (Magill & Previts, 1991); and “an absence of interests that creates an unacceptable risk of bias” (Beattie, Fearnley, & Brandt, 2001). Several factors are found to have potential influence over the independence of the auditor. Among them are size of the auditing firm (Shockley, 1981); non-audit service (Shockley, 1981; Knapp,1985); the client's financial conditions (Knapp,1985); the nature of conflict of interest (Knapp, 1985); the tenure of the audit firm, (Shockley,1981); the degree of competition inthe audit-service markets (Knapp, 1985); and the audit committee (Teoh & Lim, 1 996). Eichenseher and Shields (1983) show that chief financial officers believe that audit quality is a function of 11 items. These are ethical standards, reputation, industry expertise, audit-team expertise, geogra- phical co v er ag e, audit fees, working relationships, meeting deadlines, technical qualifications, accessibility of the audit firm, and range of services o ffered. Shockley and Holt (1983) argue t hat bank chief financial officers rank the Big Firms in terms of 10 attributes. These are prestige, professionalism, expensiveness, competence, aggressiveness, conserva- tiveness, impendence, reliabili ty, helpfulness, and bureauc rat ic behavior. Carcello, Hermanson, and Mcgrath (1 992) report 12 items that are perceived by auditors, preparers, and users of financial stat ements to determine audit quality . These are auditee size, audit team and firm experience with the client, industry expertise, responsiveness to client needs, compliance w ith GAAS, firm executive involvement, firm comm it- ment to q uality, invo lvement o f audit committee, degr ee of personal responsibility, conduct of fieldwork, auditor's skeptical attitude and firm personnel maintain freshness of perspective. Corporate governance is de fine d as the system by which firms are directed and controlled (Cadbury, 1992). The principles of corporate governance formulated by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) state that “An annual audit should be conducted by an independent, competent and qualified, auditor to provide an external and objective assurance to the board and share- holders that the financial statements fairly represent the financial position and performance of the company in all material respects,” (OECD, 2004)). KPMG (2006, p. 2) states that audit committees are responsible for oversight of the company's financial reporting process, including related risks and controls as well as the company's internal and external auditors. U.S. SEC (2003) states that the primary role of the audit committee is to oversee the financial reporting process with the ultimate objective of ensuring high-quality financial reporting. KPMG (2006) outlines five guiding principles for audit committee for playing an effective role. These are: 1) recognize that one size does not fit all, 2) have the “right” people in the committee, 3) monitor and insist on the right “tone at the top,” 4) ensure that the oversight process facilitates the committee's understanding and monitoring of key roles, responsibilities, and risks within the financial reporting environment, and 5) articulate and exercise the committee's direct responsibility for the external auditor. An effective independent audit Committee is seen as one of the determinants of audit quality, see for example Dhaliwal, Naiker, and Navissi (2006). Such a committee recommends external auditors and manages the relationship between them and the company, according to AICPA (2004) and OECD (2004). Zhang, Zhou, and Zhou (2007) report that firms with an ineffective audit committee are more likely to be identified with an internal control weakness. Krishnan (2005) finds that there is a positive relationship between audit committee independence and the quality of internal control prior to the enact- ment of SOX. However, others report that the role of audit committees in overseeing and strengthening the audit process is not significant, Carcello, Hermanson, Neal, and Riley (2002); Abbott, Parker, Peters, and Raghunandan (2003). Piot and Missonier-Piera (2007) report that audit quality, unlike quality ofcorpor at e gov ernanc e, m easur ed by firmsize (Big andnon-Big) does not have a signifi cant influe nce on t he co st o f de bt of non-financial Fr ench listed firms. These results are robust even after contr olling for a set of auditees' characteristics such as firm size, pr ofitability, asset structure, and interest co v erag e ratio. However, others report th at one of the most important functions corporate governance can play is ensuring quality of financial reporting process (see for example, Blue Ribbon Commission, 1999)). Dechow , Sloan, and Sweeney (1996); Beasley (1996); Beasley, Carcello, and Hermanson (1999); Beasley, Car cello, Hermanson, and Lapides (2000); Carcello and Neal (2000);andKlein (2002) report an association between weaknesses in governance and poor financial reporting quality, earnings manipulation, financial statement fraud, and weaker internal controls. Audit quality might be impaired by a number of factors especially by the pressure on the accounting firms to increase profit, reduce costs, and increase fees. Otley and Pierce (1996) and Willett and Page (1996) report that it is not unusual for accounting firms to trim their time budgets and increase control over their staff so as to increase profits, which thus leads to the response of the audit staff to these pressures by resorting to dysfunctional behavior such as falsifying audit work. Otley and Pierce (1996) also argue that a performance- evaluation system might represent a threat to audit quality. Furthermore, the pressure to meet the time budget is found to lead to a reduction of audit quality (Kelley, Margheim, & Pattison, 1999). 67J. Al-Ajmi / Advances in Accounting, incorporating Advances in International Accounting 25 (2009) 64–74 Additionally, the low probability of bringing in litigation cases against auditors and imposition of a limit for liabilities affect the economic incentives that deliver good audits. 4. Research methodology and sample characteristics This study was undertaken in two stages. The first stage involved the use of a mail-in questionnaire to seek the views of loan officers and investment analysts on the issues of the auditing firm's size and the attributes of audit quality. The second stage entailed a series of interviews with senior auditors of audit firms, banks, and investment companies on the issues of size of the auditing firms and audit quality, with the aim of more detailed analysis. The use of the questionnaire is motivated by an argument in Beattie and Fearnley (1998, p. 264) that “the questionnaire approach provides richer insights than is possible using secondary data analysis, which focuses on economic factors, because the questionnaire instrument includes both economic and behavioural factors.” They also point out that a behavioral or qualitative technique is important to clarify theories in accounting research because it can provide “new insights into buyers' behavior is o ffered by the ‘relationships approach’ to professional services developed in the service marketing literature, which classifies relationships (in the present case, auditor– client relationships) based on buyer type.” They note further that an “economic-based framework can be expected to provide only a partial explanation of auditor choice.” The corporate debt secondary market in Bahrain is thin, with only two issues, which means that companies seeking credit must rely on bank loans. There are also limited numbers of listed companies, so considerable equity investment in local companies is directed to non- listed companies or to companies whose financial statements are not publicly available. Thus, a survey approach to examine the role of firm size in determining audit q uality fr om the use rs' percep tion is the b est appr oach in Bahrain. Moreover, some of the factors the author tests in the study (non-audit services and outsourcing internal audit services) are not disclosed even by listed co mpanies, which are required by law to publish annual and quarterly reports. This makes a survey approach the only viable methodology. The survey instrument was developed upon review of literature and after consultation with five analysts with appropriate experience. It was comprehensively tested to improve its quality and to make sure it was applicable to current practices in Bahrain to generate the highest response rate. The questionnaire was then pretested on a sample of 20 credit and financial analysts whose comments were incorporated in the final version. The survey was administered during January and February 2007 to 150 credit analysts and to 150 financial analysts working in Bahrain for retail banks, wholesale banks, and investment companies. Out of the 300 questionnaires distributed, 175 questionnaires were returned, of which 164 questionnaires were useful for the analysis, resulting in a 54.7% response rate. Sixty percent response was obtained from financial analysts and 49.3% from credit analysts. One of the most common problems cited in a survey methodology is of non-response bias, when data from survey respondents may turn out to be invalid. To ensure the reliability and validity of the data, it is essential to examine the sample for the possibility of a non-response bias (see Bartlett & Chandler,1997; Mallin & Ow-Y ong,1998). The author follows Oppenheim (1999) and W allace and Mellor (1988), and the first 15 questionnaires were compared with the last 15 questionnaires, using t-test to investigate the differences. The results show that there is no significant difference between the 15 early and the 15 late responses, implying the absence of non-response bias. The questionnaire is divided into five sections. Section I requires respondents to provide information about the type of their institu- tions; the positions they occupy to determine whether their work involves analysis of financial statements for credit and investment decisions; and their qualifications, age, and length of experience in decisions on investing and lending. Table 1 describes the respondents. Section II asks of a number of questions found in the accounting and corporate governance literature to determine audit quality; Section III asks respondents to state their perceptions on the important compe- tencies of auditors that might affect the credibility of an audit firm; and Section IV asks two questions soliciting respondents' perceptions of the credibility of audit reports issued by Big Four and non-Big Four auditors. Finally, Section V requires participants to state their perceptions of the effect of effectiveness of audit committee on quality of audit. The respondents work for retail banks (38.4%), wholesale banks (42.1%), and investment companies (19.5%). Although the respondents hold a variety of positions in their organizations, the author wanted to reach those who analyze company reports for the purpose of obtaining decisions on investment and lending, and respondents were asked to indicate the purpose for which they analyze reports. Around 54.9% are investment analysts, whereas 45.1% are credit analysts. The majority of the respondents (74.4%) held graduate degrees or qualifications with respect to accounting or investment analysis. A majority of the respondents also had more than five years of experience, whereas around 60% of those with experience of less than five years had professional accounting qualifications. Hence, the information gathered ought to be reliable and could be generalized to the whole population. 5. Results and analysis The first question the respondents were asked to answer is about their confidence in the independence of the auditors performing their audit engagements. Auditor independence is seen by many as an important prerequisite for audit quality (DeAngelo, 1981b). Lack of auditors' independence indicates that clients may be exerting influence over the results of their audit. If this is the case, an auditor will be unable to carry out the necessary duties to reduce agency problems and ensure credible financial statements. The majority of the respondents seem to be confident (but not extremely confident) that the auditors are independent when they express their opinion. Table 2 shows the means and standard deviations Table 1 Sample characteristics. Institutions Frequency Percent Cumulative percent Retail bank 63 38.4 38.4 Wholesale bank 69 42.1 80.5 Investment company (Bank) 32 19.5 100.0 Total 164 100.0 Position Financial analysts 90 54.9 54.9 Credit analysts 74 45.1 100.0 Total 164 100.0 Highest qualification B.Sc. 50 30.5 30.5 Graduate degree 67 40.8 71.3 CPA/CA/ACCA/CFA 47 28.7 100.0 Total 164 100.0 Age of the respondents Less than 25 years 8 4.9 4.9 25 to 29 years 34 20.7 25.6 30 to 34 years 36 22.0 47.6 35 to 39 years 54 32.9 80.5 40 years and older 32 19.5 100.0 Total 164 100.0 Length of experience Less than 5 years 52 31.7 31.7 5to9years 28 17.1 48.8 10 to 14 years 46 28.0 76.8 15 to 19 years 14 8.5 85.3 20 years and longer 24 14.6 100.0 Total 164 100.0 68 J. Al-Ajmi / Advances in Accounting, incorporating Advances in International Accounting 25 (2009) 64–74 of the responses. The mean responses show that respondents perceive auditors in Bahrain as independent but not highly independent. This observation came from credit analysts as well as financial analysts, although financial analysts thought that auditors were more indepen- dent than credit analysts. To test whether this difference is significantly different from zero, the author applies a Levene test and t-test. The homogeneity of the variances of the responses of two groups is confirmed by the results obtained from the Levene test, so a t-test is performed to test the differences in the mean of the responses between credit and financial analysts. The results show that the mean difference is not significantly different from zero, indicating that both groups seem to agree that auditors in Bahrain are independent of their clients. Another measure of audit quality is that financial statements are free from unintentional misstatements or omissions of material information. Respondents were asked to indicate their confidence level with regard to whether the financial statements of Bahraini companies meet a standard using such a definition of audit quality. The mean rank of the responses shows that the majority of respondents (86.6%) are at least confident, and only 2.4% donot have any confidence at all in the financial statements. The results also show that, on average, financial analysts are more confident in financial statements than credit analysts (mean of response of 3.49, 5.00 being extremely confident compared with the mean of 3.38). The t-test results indicate that the mean difference is significantly different from zero, indicating that the two groups are homogeneous in their perceptions of the quality of audits. This can also be seen from the results of the Levene test, which shows that variances of the responses of the two groups do not differ significantly. The relatively high confidence of financial analysts in financial statements might be due to 1) their reliance on these statements as the main source of information, and therefore, they need to believe that such financial statements are more reliable than the credit analysts do; 2) financial analysts deal mainly with financial statements of listed firms which are audited by either the Big Four or BDO Jawad Habib, whereas credit analysts deal mainly with the small- and medium-sized firms, the accounts of which are audited mainly by small audit firms. This might imply that “audit quality ” ha s been socially constructed to fitneedsoffinancial analysts more than the users of financial statements. Credit analysts, on the contrary, have access to their clients facilitating the process of obtaining more information from clients whenever the need arises. Whether auditor reports influence credit and investment decisions is the third question in the questionnaire. The mean of the responses indicates that those reports do influence analyst decisions. The majority of respondents appeared to take auditors' reports into consideration to different degrees; only 8.5% of the respondents answered that the reports do not influence their decisions at all. Mean responses indicate financial analysts (3.49) appear to be influenced more by auditors' reports than credit analysts' reports (3.38). The results of Levene's test for the equality of variances indicate no significant difference between the variances of the responses of both groups, but the results of the t-test indicate the mean responses of the groups differ significantly from each other. These results might be explained by two reasons: 1) credit analysts can obtain additional information from clients who are seeking financing, and 2) bank–client relationships give creditors more leverage to know their clients, their financial positions, and their probability of defaults. Investors and financial analysts do not generally have these advantages. Financial analysts would be expected to rely more on financial statements and auditors' reports as one way to determine the credibility of a financial statement. The effect of non-audit services (NAS) by firms' external auditors is one factor cited in the literature as having an impact on auditor independence and audit quality. Such services tend to be regarded by regulators in the UK, the US, Australia, and various other countries as a threat to auditor independence (Craswell, 1999, p. 29). In fact, research findings on a connection between the joint provision of audit and NAS and auditor independence have been inconclusive and contradictory (Ashbaugh, 2004; Brandon, Crabtree, & Maher, 2004; Chung & Kallapur, 2003; DeFond, Raghunandan, & Subramanyam, 2002; Frankel, Johnson, & Nelson, 2002; Geiger & Rama, 2003; Kleinman, Palmon, & Anandarajan, 1998; Reynolds, Deis, & Francis, 2004). A review of the literature by Beattie and Fearnley (2002) shows no evidence to support the hypothesis that the joint provision of audit and NAS could threaten auditor independence; it is acknowledged that it might threaten the appearance of independence (but the audit quality will not be affected). Table 2 Means and standard deviations of the responses, Levene's F test, and t-test. Questions Stat. Sample Financial analysts Credit analysts Levene's F test t-test 1. How confident are you that the Qualified Accountants are independent in performing the audit? Mean 3.440 3.490 3.380 0.111 0.654 Std 1.075 1.008 1.155 5 = Extremely Confident, 0 = No Confidence 2. How confident are you that the financial statements are free of unintentional (alternatively, intentional) misstatements or omissions? Mean 3.440 3.490 3.380 0.111 0.654 Std 1.075 1.008 1.155 5 = Extremely Confident, 0 = No Confidence 3. The influence of the auditor's report on your decision-making process. Mean 3.650 3.780 3.490 0.007 2.139 a Std 0.877 0.897 0.832 5 = Great Influence, 0 = No Influence 4. In your opinion, the provision of non-audit services by the audit firms will impair its independence and therefore its quality of services. Mean 3.730 3.760 3.700 2.219 0.309 Std 1.086 1.042 1.144 5 = Strongly Agree, 0 = Do Not Agree 5. In your opinion, outsourcing internal auditing activities to the external auditors will enhance the audit quality. Mean 1.770 1.870 1.650 0.041 1.401 Std 0.928 0.927 0.911 5 = Strongly Agree, 0 = Do Not Agree 6. In your opinion, long association of the relationship between auditors and their clients will enhance the credibility of financial statements Mean 2.680 2.640 2.730 0.635 − 0.467 Std 1.160 1.202 1.114 5 = Strongly Agree, 0 = Do Not Agree Std: Standard Deviation. a Significant at less than 5% significance level. 69J. Al-Ajmi / Advances in Accounting, incorporating Advances in International Accounting 25 (2009) 64–74 Antle, Gr iffin, Teece, and Williamson (1997) contended that auditor independence would not be affected by NAS because this client association would improve audit quality. The reasons are that an auditor's knowledge of the client company can be improved by the provision of NAS, resulting in increased objectivity (knowledge spillover); independence (Goldman & Barlev, 1974; Wallman, 1996); and economies of scope (Arrunada, 1999). Others, including Brandon et al. (2004), Frankel et al. (2002), Glezen and Millar (1985), Jenkins and Krawczyk (20 02), Lowe and Pany (1995,1996), Raghunandan (2003), and Wines (1994) argue that performing non-audit and audit services will pressurize auditors not to conduct the audit function objectively, impairing their indepen- dence. Auditors will end up auditing their own work, according to “Revision of the Commission's Auditor Independence Requirement,” 2001. Auditors will be weakened if they rely on NAS (Canning & Gwilliam, 1999). This will ultimately impair the quality of an audit. Elstein (2001) contends that high consulting fees negatively affect auditor independence and worsen audit quality; having provided NAS, auditors become more likely to give the client the benefit of the doubt, including more flexibility in recording and adjusting discretionary reserves that could lead to manipulation of earnings figures. The respondents of the survey conducted by the author were asked to determine how much they agree with the statement that “the provision of non-audit services by audit firms will impair auditor independence and therefore its quality of services.” The results show that the majority agreed that auditors offering non-audit along with audit services might compromise their independence, leading to a poorer quality of their audit. The Levene test and t-test results show that the perceptions of the two groups were similar. Abbott, Parker, Peters, and Rama (2007) argue that the effect of outsourcing internal audit services to external auditors will lead to economic bounding only if companies outsource routine internal audit tasks and also will result in a loss of internal aud itors' independence, although outsourcing non-recurring internal audit tasks will not lead to economic bonding. In Bahrain, although some non-financial non-listed companies outsource their internal audit to non-external auditors, some companies do outsource such services to their external auditors. To test how credit and financial analysts perceive the effect on audit quality of outsourcing internal audit tasks to external auditors, respondents were asked to express their opinion of the role of outsourcing in the credibility of financial statements. The results show that the majority (more than 76%) do not look favorably on outsourcing internal audit tasks to a firm's external auditors. Levene's test on the variances of the responses shows that the variances are homogeneous. The mean difference is not significantly different from zero, indicating that credit analysts and financial analysts share similar opinion. Auditor tenure is one among the factors that affect audit quality, although the relationship is complex. Auditors auditing a client for the first time generally need more time to understand the client's business, which increases the risk of missing material and misstate- ments. Yet, although a very long association may lead to a better understand ing of the client's business and make it more likely that the auditor will detect misstatements and earnings management, it might also produce a poorer quality audit. Shockley (1981) and Deis and Giroux (1992) argue that long tenure has the potential to cause complacency, more relaxed audit procedures, too much dependence on management representations, and less skepticism and less diligence in gathering evidence. Myers, Myers, and Omer (2003) and Ghosh and Moon (2005) contend that long relationship improves audit quality and that mandatory limits on an auditor's term might put on unnecessary cost burden on investors. More recently, Knechel and Vans traelen (2007) find that long associations between auditors and clients do not impair auditor independence; they do not find evidence to support the contention that long-term relationships will make auditors better at predicting bankruptcy. The author's survey results show that opinions of the respondents vary, although the largest group perceives tenure to have little effect on the quality of an audit. Levene's test for equality of variances shows that variances of the responses of the groups are homogeneous. The t- test shows no significant difference between the means of the responses of the two groups. Fourteen comp etencies (att ributes) have been found in the literature to contribute to the quality of the audit service and ultimately the audit report: specialization; independence; industry expertise; technical competence in applying GAAP & GAAS/IFRS & ISA, a wide r ang e of skills such as analytical skills; pro vision of re al v alue for the a udit fees paid b y clients; proactiveness, taking initiative; due care; commitment to providing and maintaining quality service; professional audit expertise; reputation; high ethical standards; and possessing strong accounting and auditing know ledge . Survey respondents were asked to state their perceptions with regard to the level of importance of each of those competencies for the quality of audit, using a 6-point Likert scale, where zero indicates that the competency is not important in determining audit quality and 5 indicates that it is extremely important. Table 3 presents the summary statistics. Accounting and auditing knowledge is ranked first, followed by professional audit expertise (with a mean of 4.52). Auditor indepen- dence is ranked third with a mean of 4.49. Real value for the audit fees is ranked last by both groups of analysts with a mean of 3.46. The low ranking of this factor should come as no surprise because users of financial statement would be more concerned about the Table 3 Descriptive statistics of competencies/factors, Levene's F test, and t-test. Competencies/Factors Whole sample Financial analysts Credit analysts Levene's F test t-test Mean Std. Deviation Mean Std. Deviation Mean Std. Deviation Specialization 4.140 1.021 4.210 0.977 4.050 1.071 0.089 0.981 Independence 4.490 0.883 4.610 0.730 4.350 1.026 11.358 a 1.830 Industry Expertise 4.050 1.064 4.100 1.039 4.000 1.098 0.000 − 0.655 Technical competence in applying 4.080 1.203 4.170 1.144 3.970 1.271 0.057 1.026 Wide range of skills (GAAP & GAAS/IFRS & ISA) 3.750 1.076 3.700 1.126 3.810 1.016 0.000 − 0.655 Real value for fees 3.400 1.237 3.340 1.300 3.460 1.161 0.903 − 0.592 Proactive 3.630 1.203 3.610 1.287 3.660 1.101 4.220 a − 0.274 Takes initiative 3.730 0.999 3.770 1.092 3.680 0.878 0.873 0.579 Due care 4.120 1.090 4.270 1.003 3.950 1.169 0.689 1.890 Quality commitment 4.300 0.999 4.310 1.098 4.300 0.872 1.986 0.088 Professional audit expertise 4.520 0.917 4.520 0.939 4.510 0.895 0.388 0.060 Reputation 4.150 1.152 4.240 0.878 4.030 1.414 7.717 a 1.153 Ethical standards 4.410 1.129 4.530 1.173 4.270 1.064 0.108 1.490 Accounting & auditing Knowledge 4.610 0.937 4.620 0.801 4.590 1.084 0.603 0.187 a Significant at less than 0.05 level. 70 J. Al-Ajmi / Advances in Accounting, incorporating Advances in International Accounting 25 (2009) 64–74 quality of the reports than the value of money; reduced auditor fees might lead to a compromise on the quality of an audit. The four factors most important to financial analysts (mean is higher than 4.5) were accounting and auditing knowledge; independence; ethical stan- dards; and professional audit expertise. Credit analysts rank only accounting and auditing knowledge and professional audit expertise as extremely important and rank auditor independence in third place. The Levene test and t-tests of the mean difference show no significant difference between the variances of the responses of all factors, except for independence, proactiveness, and reputation. The test results also indicate that the mean responses of the credit analysts and of the financial analysts do not differ significantly, indicating that the two groups perceive the importance of the factors similarly. To test respondents' perceptions of the effect of firm size on audit quality, they were requested to answer two questions on how they perceived the quality of audits performed by Big Four firms and the quality of audits by non-Big Four firms. The means of the responses show that both groups of analysts think financial statements audited by one of the Big Four as being more credible than those of firms that are not classified as Big Four. Financial analysts rank the credibility of financial statements audited by Big Four significantly higher than the rank of financial analysts. This difference should not be interpreted as that credit analysts favor statements audited by non-Big four firms, as both credit and financial analysts consider the quality of financial statements audited by non-Big firms as average. These results should be interpreted along with the respondents' perception of the importance of 14 factors that are likely to determine the quality of the audit service. These factors are shown in Table 4. Because these factors are likely to be characteristic of Big Four firms, these firms are more likely to be perceived as providing better-quality audit reports. These results would be consistent with those of many of the studies that find that Big Four firms produce better quality reports because they have better resources. This is also additional evidence supporting the current CBB policy that non-Big Four firms are not allowed to audit retail and wholesale banks and large investment companies. The results also justify the decisions of listed companies to demand audit services from companies with an international presence because they can access the expertise needed even if it is not available in the auditor's local offices, providing assurance of a quality that meets the expectations of investors and creditors. Two regression models are used to test the effect of the 14 attributes on the perception of the credibility of financial statements. The dependent variable in the first model is the perception of the respondents of the credibility of reports audited by Big Four firms. The dependent variable in the second is the perception of the respondents of the credibility of statements audited by non-Big Four firms. In both models, the independent variable is the sum of the ratings of the 14 co mpetency factors as perceived by respondents. Each model is run three times. The first assumes that the dependent variable is the perception of all the respondents; the second is the perception of the credit analysts; and the third is the perceptions of the financial analysts. Table 5 shows the regression results. The adjusted R 2 in the first model is 17.9% and significant at less than 5%, and the coefficient of the competencies is 0.031 and significant at less than 5%, indicating that the total rating of the competencies is one of the determinants of the audit quality. When the dependent variable is replaced with the perceptions of credit analysts and then with those of financial analysts, the R 2 changed to 9.40% and 51.90%, respectively. In both regressions, the coefficients of independent variable remain significant with a priori expected sign. The adjusted R 2 in the second model is 0.8% and insignificant at the conventional level, and the coefficient of the competencies is 0.09 and insignificant. Similar regression results are obtained when the model is tested using the two subsamples (credit analysts and financial analysts). The outcomes of the six regression runs also indicate that both credit analysts and financial analysts perceived that the Big Four firms, unlike non-Big Four, are more likely to have the needed competencies to ensure audit quality from a user's perspective. These results lend further support to those reported by Carcello et al. (1992), Eichenseher and Shields (1983), Shockley and Holt (1983), and Frantz (1999). Subsequently, step-wise regression is carried out after replacing the inde pendent variable with the individual values of the 14 competencies in the mode. For the entire sample, the dependent Table 4 Respondents' perceptions of the credibility of audit reports. Credibility of audit reports Whole sample Financial analysts Credit analysts Levene's F test t-test Mean Std. Deviation Mean Std. Deviation Mean Std. Deviation The credibility of a report audited by one of the Big Four 4.34 0.722 4.49 0.066 4.16 0.092 0.132 2.953 a The credibility of a report audited by Non-Big Four 2.57 1.016 2.58 0.104 2.57 0.123 0.468 0.064 a Significant at less than 0.05 level. Table 5 Regression results (Creditability of audit report i =α + β competencies i + ε i ). Dependent variable Sample Constant Independent variable (Competencies/Factors) Adjusted R 2 F-value Coefficient Standardized beta Credibility of a report audited by one of the Big Four Whole sample 2.566 a 0.031 a 0.423 17.90% 35.232 a (0.303) (0.005) Financial analysts 1.068 a 0.055 a 0.720 51.80% 77.280 a (0.006) (0.006) Credit analysts 0.807 a 0.031 a 0.307 9.40% 7.467 a (0.655) (0.011) Credibility of a report audited by Non-Big Four Whole sample 0.2040 0.009 0.09 0.80% 1.331 (0.469) (0.008) Financial analysts 4.224 a 0.005 0.069 0.50% 0.415 (0.416) (0.007) Credit analysts 3.335 a − 0.015 − 0.124 0.015% 1.379 (0.653) (0.011) Standard errors are in parentheses. a Significant at less than 0.05 level. 71J. Al-Ajmi / Advances in Accounting, incorporating Advances in International Accounting 25 (2009) 64–74 variable is the credibility of a report audited by one of the Big Four; in addition to the constant, only professional audit expertise, reputation, and wide range of skills are included in the final model, with an R 2 of 24%. The coefficients of the three variables are positive and significant at less than 2.8%. When the dependent variable is replaced with the perceptions of the credit analysts, the final model has an R 2 of 62.7% and includes professional audit expertise, wide range of skills, reputation, and accounting-and-auditing knowledge. When the dependent variable is replaced with the perceptions of financial analysts, the final model has an R 2 of 70% and includes professional audit expertise, real value for fees, wide range of skills, ethical standards, and accounting-and-auditing knowledge. When the dependent variable is replaced with the credibility of a report audited by one of the non-Big Four, for the entire sample, only two variables (proactive and takes initiative) remain in the final model, with a significant R 2 of 8.9%. When the sample is limited to the credit analysts, the final model includes only one variable, “due care”, with a significant R 2 of 5.1%. The final step-wise regression is carried out for the sample that is limited to financial analysts. The final model has a significant R 2 of 34.9% and includes the following variables: due care, expertise in the industry, and commitment to quality. The audit committee is considered an important board committee that plays a role in implementing corporate governance guidelines. One of the most important functions of the committee is to oversee internal and external audit performance and to advise the board on audit matters. Therefore, an effective audit committee should enhance audit quality. Corporate governance principles (OECD, 2004) outline the importance of audit committee in enhancing audit quality. Abbott, Parker, and Peters (2004), Yang and Krishnan (2005), DeZoort and Salterio (2001), and Lin, Li, and Yang (2006) find a positive relation between audit quality and the effectiveness of audit committee. Banks and investment companies are required by law to have audit committees, but not non-financial companies listed on the Bahrain Stock Exchange. To measure the impact of an audit committee on perceived audit quality, respondents were asked about their reactions with regard to the role of an effective audit committee in audit quality. To test the effect of the role of the committee in improving audit quality, respondents were asked to state their perception of the importance of effectiveness of audit committee on the quality of audit, using a 6-point Likert scale, where 0 indicates not important in determining audit quality and 5 indicates that it is extremely important. The survey does not elaborate on the requirements for audit committee to be effective. This is attributed to the fact that practices “that work best for one organization may not be ideal for another—especially in a corporate governance environment where corporate culture, financial reporting risks, and governance needs can vary dramatically from company to company.” The mean of the responses of the whole sample is 4.15 and 0.82 standard deviation. The mean and the mode of the responses clearly show that these users of financial statements perceive that an audit committee affects the audit quality. Splitting the responses into the groups, the mean responses of the credit analysts is 4.12 and 0.76 standard deviation, whereas mean responses of the financial analysts is 4.17 and a standard deviation of 0.88. Levene's test (F= 3.056, p value of 0.082) on the variances of the two groups indicates no significant difference between the variances. The null hypothesis that the two groups of analysts view the effect of the role of audit committee in determining audit quality as equally important is accepted because the p value of 0.729 is more than the critical value of 0.05. 6. Concluding remarks The author has reported the results of a survey of credit and financial analysts on perceptions of audit quality and the factors that determine that quality. Consistent with the evidence in developed markets, the bigger auditing firms are perceived to provide better quality audits and to be more independent of the management of companies they audit compared with smaller firms. Findings are similar in both the questionnaires and personal interviews. The conclusion is that the Big Four auditing firms have characteristics that place them in a better position to produce better quality audits than smaller firms. A review of the 2007 annual reports of 41 companies listed on the Bahrain Stock Exchange shows that 82.5% of the companies are audited by one of the Big Four. The author's interviews indicate that the Big Four auditors are better able to resist management pressure in cases of conflict. Their greater resources, technical knowledge, and global reach allow them to deal with clients more objectively without a fear of termination. Financial analysts rely more on the audited financial statements than credit analysts. This is likely because a bank–client relationship allows credit analysts to obtain more information from their clients; they are also in a better position to evaluate the financial position of their borrowers than financial analysts. Both groups of analysts think that provision of non-audit services will negatively affect auditor's independence and ultimately impair the quality of an audit. An effective audit committee is seen as one factor that should improve the credibility of financial statements. Regression results indicate that both groups of analysts perceive financial statements audited by Big-Four firms to be of better quality than those audited by non-Big firms. This is because of the characteristic of Big Four firms, which are not matched by other audit firms. This is an evidence supporting CBB's current policy that audit of retail and wholesale banks and large investment companies should be performed by Big-Four firms. Furthermore, credit analysts have found that the creditability of an audit report by one of the Big Four is determined by professional audit expertise, wide range of skills, reputation, and accounting-and-auditing knowledge. However, for financial analysts, the credibility of these reports is a function of professional audit expertise, real value for fees, wide range of skills, ethical standards, and accounting-and-auditing knowledge. Future research may be directed toward determining the effect of the actual role of an audit committee on audit quality. This can be carried out when companies start establishing such committees and ensure that they act in an independent and effective manner. This is likely to take place when Bahrain issues its corporate governance code. Acknowledgements I am grateful to the two anonymous reviewers for their time and efforts. I would like also to thank the Journal co-editor, Professor J. Timothy Sale, for his support and editorial assistance. The usual caveats apply. References Abbott, L., Parker, S., & Peters, G. (2004). Audit committee charac teristics and restatements. Auditing: A Journal of Practice and Theory, 2,69−87. Abbott, L. J., Parker, S., Peters, G. F., & Raghunandan, K. (2003). The association between audit committee characteristics and audit fees. Auditing: A Journal of Practice and Theory, 22,17−32. Abbott, L. J., Parker, S., Peters, G. F., & Rama, D. V. (2007). Corporate governance, audit quality, and the Sarbanes–Oxley act: Evidence from internal audit outsourcing. Accounting Review, 82, 803−836. American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA) (1994). Professional standards. New York: Commerce Clearing House Inc. American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA) (2004). The AICPA audit committee toolkit. New York: AICPA. Antle, R. (1982). The auditor as an economic agent. Journal of Accounting Research, 20, 503−527. Antle, R., Griffin, P. A., Teece, D. J., & Williamson, O. E. (1997). An economic analysis of auditor independence for a multi-client, multi-service public accounting firm. Berkeley, CA: The Law & Economics Consulting Group Inc. 72 J. Al-Ajmi / Advances in Accounting, incorporating Advances in International Accounting 25 (2009) 64–74 Arrunada, B. (1999). The economics of audit quality: private incentives and the regulation of audit and non-audit services. Dordrecht, The Netherland: Kluwer Academics Publishers. Ashbaugh, H. (2004). Ethical issues related to the provision of audit and non-audit services: Evidence from academic research. Journal of Business Ethics, 52,143−148. Bahrain Commercial Companies Law, (2001). Bartlett, S. A., & Chandler, R. A. (1997). The corporate report and the private shareholder: Lee and Tweedie twenty years on. British Accounting Review, 29, 245−261. Beasley, M. S. (1996). An empirical analysis of the relation between the board of director composition and financial statement fraud. Accounting Review, 71,443−466. Beasley, M., Carcello, J. and Hermanson, D. (1999). Fraudulent financial reporting: 1987–1997. An analysis of U.S. public c ompanies. Committee of Sponsoring Organizations of the Treadway Commission. Beasley, M., Carcello, J., Hermanson, D., & Lapides, P. D. (2000). Fraudulent financial reporting: Consideration of industry traits and corporate governance mechanisms. Accounting Horizons, 14,441−454. Beatty, R. (1989). Auditor reputation and the pricing of initial public offerings. Ac- counting Review, 64, 693−709. Beattie, V., & Fearnley, S. (1998). Audit market competition: auditor changes and the impact of tendering. British Accounting Review, 30,261−290. Beattie, V., & Fearnley, S. (2002). Auditor independence and non-audit services: A literature review. [WWW]bURL: http://icaew.com/N Beattie, V., Fearnley, & Brandt, R. (2001). Behind closed doors: What company audit is really about. : Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales. Blue Ribbon Committee (1999). Report and recommendations of the Blue Ribbon Committee on Improving the Effectiveness of Corporate Audit Committees. New York: New York Stock Exchange and National Association of securities Dealers. Brandon, D. M., Crabtree, A. D., & Maher, J. J. (2004). Non-audit fees, auditor independence and bond ratings. Auditing: A Journal of Theory & Practice, 23, 89−103. Cadbury, A. (1992). Study group on directors' remuneration, final report. Canning, M., & Gwilliam, D. (1999). Non-audit services and auditor independence: Some evidence from Ireland. European Accounting Review, 8 ,401−419 . Carcello, J. V., Hermanson, D. R., & McGrath, N. T. (1992). Audit quality attributes: The perceptions of audit partners, preparers, and financial statement users. Auditing: A Journal of Practice and Theory, 11,1−15. Carcello, J. V., Hermanson, D. R., Neal, T. L., & Riley, R. A., Jr. (2002). Board characteristics and audit fees. Contemporary Accounting Research, 19, 365−384. Carcello, J., & Neal, T. L. (2000). Audit committee composition and auditor reporting. Accounting Review, 75, 453−468. Central Bank of Bahrain, Rulebook Volume 2, Part A, Islamic Banks, http://cbb. complinet.com/cbb/display/display.html?rbid=1821&record_id=1453&elemen- t_id=1453&highlight=OM-2.7#r1453 Central Bank of Bahrain Law of (2006). Chung, H., & Kallapur, S. (2003). Client importance, non-audit services and abnormal accruals. Accounting Review, 78,931−955. Craswell, A. T. (1999). Does the provision of non-audit services impair auditor independence. International Journal of Auditing, 3,29−40. Davidson, R. A., & Neu, D. (1993). A note on the association between audit firm size and audit quality. Contemporary Accounting Research, 9,479− 488. DeAngelo, L. (1981a). Auditor independence, “low balling,” and disclosure regulation. Journal of Accounting and Economics, 3,113−127. DeAngelo, L. (1981b). Auditor size and audit quality. Journal of Accounting and Economics, 3, 297−322. Dechow, P., Sloan, R., & Sweeney, S. (1996). Causes and consequences of earnings manipulation: An analysis of firms subject to enforcement actions by the SEC. Contemporary Accounting Research, 1,1−36. Defond, M. L., & Francis, J. R. (2005). Audit quality research after Sarbanes–Oxley. Au- diting: A Journal of Practice & Theory, 24,5−30. DeFond, M. L., Raghunandan, K., & Subramanyam, K. R. (2002). Do non-audit service fees impair auditor independence? Evidence from going concern audit opinions. Journal of Accounting Research, 40, 1247−1274. Deis, D. R., & Giroux, G. A. (1992). Determinants of audit quality in the public sector. Accounting Review, 67, 462−479. DeZoort, F., & Salterio, S. (2001). The effects of corporate governance experience and financial reporting and aud it knowledge on audit committee members' judgments. Auditing: A Journal of Practice and Theory, 20,31−47. Dhaliwal, D. S., Naiker, V., & Navissi, F. (2006). Audit committee financial expertise, corporate governance and accruals quality: An empirical analysis. Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=906690 Eichenseher, J. W., & Shields, D. (1983). The correlates of CPA-firm change for publicly- held corporation. Auditing: A Journal of Practice and Theory, 2,39− 56. Elliott, R. K. (2000). Testimony on auditor independence before the Securities and Exchange Commission. h ttp://www.sec.gov/rules/proposed/s71300/testimony/ elliott1.htm Elstein, A. (2001). Deals & deal makers: Study faults works of auditors who consult, The Wall Street Journal, August 1, p. C. 18. Epstein, M. J., & Geiger, M. A. (1994). Investor views of audit assurance: Recent evidence of the expectation gap. Journal of Accountancy, 177,60−66. Francis, J. (2004). What do we know about audit quality? British Accounting Review, 36, 345−368. Frankel, R. M., Johnson, M. F., & Nelson, K. K. (2002). The relation between auditors' fees for non-audit services and earnings management. Accounting Review, 77,71−105. Frantz, P. (1999). Auditor's skill, auditing standards, litigation, and audit quality. British Accounting Review, 31 ,151−183. Fuerman, Ross D. (2004). Audit quality examined one large CPA firm at a time: Mid- 1990's empirical evidence of a precursor of Arthur Andersen's collapse. Corporate Ownership & Control, 2,137−148. Geiger, M. A., & Rama, D. V. (2003). Audit fees, non-audit fees, and auditor reporting on stressed companies. Auditing: A Journal of Practice and Theory, 22,53−69. Ghosh, A., & Moon, D. (2005). Auditor tenure and perceptions of audit quality. Ac- counting Review, 80, 585−612. Glezen, G. W., & Millar, J. A. (1985). An empirical investigation of stockholder reaction to disclosures required by ASR No. 250. Journal of Accounting Research, 23, 859−870. Goldman, A., & Barlev, B. (1974). The auditor-firm conflict of interests: Its implications for independence. Accounting Review, 49,707−718. Goodwin-Stewart, J., & Kent, P. (2006). Relation between external audit fees, audit committee characteristics and internal audit. Accounting and Finance, 46, 387−404. International Audit Networks (2006). Global capital markets and the global economy: A vision from the CEOs of the international audit networks. http://www.gti.org/ publications/CEO_vision.pdf International Organization of Securities Commissions (IOSCO) (2002). Principles of auditor oversight. : IOSCO. Jenkins, J. G., & Krawczyk, K. (2002). The relationship between non-audit services and perceived auditor independence. Journal of Business and Economic Perspectives, 16, 25−36. Jensen, M. C., & Meckling, W. H. (1976). Theory of the firm: Managerial behavior, agency costs and ownership structure. Journal of Financial Economics, 3, 305−360. Jeong, S. W., & Rho, J. (2004). Big Six auditors and audit quality: The Korean evidence. International Journal of Accounting, 39,175−196. Khurana, I. K., & Raman, K. K. (2004). Are Big Four audits in ASEAN countries of higher quality than Non-Big Four audits? Asia-Pacific Journal of Accounting and Economics, 11,139−166. Kelley, T., Margheim, L., & Pattison, D. (1999). Survey on the differential effects of time deadline pressure versus time budget pressure on auditor behavior. Journal of Applied Business Research, 15,117−128. Klein, A. (20 02). Audit committees, board of director characteristics and earnings management. Journal of Accounting and Economics, 33,375−400. Kleinman, G., Palmon, D., & Anandarajan, A. (1998). Auditor independence: A synthesis of theory and empirical research. Research in Accounting Regulation, 12,3− 42. Knapp, M. C. (1985). Audit conflict: An empirical study of the perceived ability of auditors to resist management pressure. The Accounting Review, LX, 202−211. Knechel, W. R., & Vanstraelen, A. (2007). The relationship between auditor tenure and audit quality implied by going concern opinions. Auditing: A Journal of Practice and Theory, 26,113−131. KPMG International, Audit Committee Institute (2006). Five guiding principles for audit committees. Geneva: KPMG International. Krishnan, G. V. (2005). Did Houston clients of Arthur Andersen recognize publicly available bad news in a timely fashion? Contemporary Accounting Research, 22, 165−193. Krishnan, J., & Schauer, P. C. (2000). The differentiation of quality among auditors: Evidence from the not-for-profit sector. Auditing: A Journal of Practice and Theory, 19,9−25. Lin, J. W., Li, J. F., & Yang, J. S. (2006). The effect of audit committee performance on earnings quality. Managerial Auditing Journal, 11,921−933. Lowe, D. J., & Pany, K. (1995). CPA performance of consulting engagements with audit clients: Effects on financial statement users' perceptions and decisions. Auditing' A Journal of Practice & Theory, 14,35−53. Lowe, D. J., & Pany, K. (1996). An examination of the effects of type of engagement, materiality and structure on CPA consulting engagements with audit clients. Ac- counting Horizons, 10,32−51. Magill, H., & Previts, G. J. (1991). CPA professional responsibilities: An introduction. Cincinnati: South-Western Publishing. Mallin, C., & Ow-Yong, K. (1998). Corporate governance in small companies—The alternative investment market. Corporate Governance—An International Review, 6, 224−232. Mutchler, J. F., Hopwood, W., & McKeown, J. C. (1997). The influence of contrary information and mitigating factors on audit opinion decisions on bankrupt companies. Journal of Accounting Research, 35, 295−31 0. Myers, J. N., Myers, L. A., & Omer, T. C. (2003). Exploring the term of the auditor–client relationship and the quality of earnings: A case for mandatory auditor rotation? Accounting Review, 78, 779−800. Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) (2004). OECD principles of corporate governance. Paris: OECD. Oppenheim, A. N. (1999). Questionnaire design, interviewing and attitude measurement. New York: Continuum. Otley, D. T., & Pierce, B. J. (1996). Auditor time budget pressure: Consequences and antecedents. Accounting, Auditing & Accountability Journal,31−38. Palmrose, Z. (1988). Analysis of auditor litigation and audit service quality. Accounting Review, 63,55−73. Piot, C., & Missonier-Piera, F. (2007). Corporate governance, audit quality and the cost of debt financing of French listed companies. Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/ abstract=960681 Raghunandan, K. (2003). Non-audit services and shareholder ratification of auditors appointments. Auditing: A Journal of Practice and Theory, 22,155−163. Reynolds, J. K., Deis, D. R., Jr., & Francis, J. R. (2004). Professional service fees and auditor objectivity. Auditing: A Journal of Practice and Theory, 23,29−52. Shockley, R. (1981). Perceptions of auditor independence. The Accounting Review, 56, 785−800. Shockley, A., & Holt, R. N. (1983). A behavioral investigation of supplier differentiation in the market for audit services. Journal of Accounting Research, 21 , 545−564. 73J. Al-Ajmi / Advances in Accounting, incorporating Advances in International Accounting 25 (2009) 64–74 [...]... J Al-Ajmi / Advances in Accounting, incorporating Advances in International Accounting 25 (2009) 64–74 Teoh, H Y., & Lim, C C (1996) An empirical study of the effects of audit committees, disclosure of nonaudit fees and other issues on audit independence: Malaysian evidence Journal of International Accounting, Auditing and Taxation, 5, 231−248 Titman, S., & Trueman, B (1986) Information quality and. .. budget pressure and irregular auditing practices amongst newly qualified UK chartered accountants British Accounting Review, 28, 101−120 Wines, G (1994) Auditor independence, audit qualifications and the provision of nonaudit services: A note Accounting and Finance, 34, 75−86 Yang, J S., & Krishnan, J (2005) Audit committees and quarterly earnings management International Journal of Auditing, 9, 201−219... accounting, part III: Reliability and auditor independence Accounting Horizons, 10, 76−97 Watkins, A L., Hillison, W., & Morecroft, S E (2004) Audit quality: A synthesis and empirical evidence Journal of Accounting Literature, 23, 153−193 Watts, R L., & Zimmerman, J L (1986) Positive accounting theory : Englewood Cliffs Willenborg, M (1999) Empirical analysis of the economic demand for auditing in the initial... 231−248 Titman, S., & Trueman, B (1986) Information quality and the valuation of new issues Journal of Accounting and Economics, 8, 159−172 U.S Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) (2003) Final rule: Standards relating to listed company audit committees Washington, D.C.: U.S Securities and Exchange Commission Wallace, R S O., & Mellor, C J (1988) Nonresponse bias in mail accounting surveys: A pedagogical... & Krishnan, J (2005) Audit committees and quarterly earnings management International Journal of Auditing, 9, 201−219 Zhang, Y., Zhou, J., & Zhou, N (2007) Audit committee quality, auditor independence, and internal control Journal of Accounting and Public Policy, 26, 300−327 . Audit firm, corporate governance, and audit quality: Evidence from Bahrain Jasim Al-Ajmi ⁎ Department of Economics and Finance, College of Business Administration, University of Bahrain, . size, corporate governance, and audit quality is imperative to set the ground for the stage for the author's survey results. The relationship betweenthe audit- firm sizeand the qualityof audit- reporting. these two roles depend on audit quality. While audit quality is considered an important element of corporate governance, it is unclear whether audit qualityand otheraspects ofcorporate governance (such