1 Selection and Early Career Education of Executive Officers in the Royal Navy c1902-1939 Submitted by Elinor Frances Romans, to the University of Exeter as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Maritime History, March 2012. This thesis is available for Library use on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. I certify that all material in this thesis which is not my own work has been identified and that no material has previously been submitted and approved for the award of a degree by this or any other University. Signature……………………………………………………………… 2 This thesis is dedicated to the teachers who inspired me and, in the true sense of the word, educated me. I’d like to name you all but it would be a very long list. Without you this thesis would have been unthinkable. This thesis is dedicated to the colleagues, friends, phriends, DMers and DMRPers without whom it would have unendurable . This thesis is dedicated to my supervisor, Nicholas Rodger, without whom it would have been implausible. Above all though it is dedicated to my family, without whom it would have been impossible. 3 Abstract This thesis is concerned with the selection and early career education of executive branch officers in the Royal Navy c1902-1939. The thesis attempts to place naval selection and educational policy in context by demonstrating how it was affected by changing naval requirements, external political interference and contemporary educational reform. It also explores the impact of the First World War and the Invergordon mutiny upon officer education. The thesis discusses the selection of potential executive officers, exploring what methods were used, why they were used and how they were developed over time. It discusses the increasing openness of the officer corps of the Royal Navy to boys of talent, irrespective of their background; and shows that this trend was driven by political demand, fuelled by the increasing number of well educated lower middle class boys, and welcomed by many in the Royal Navy. The thesis demonstrates that the Fisher-Selborne Scheme of officer education combined existing naval practice with recent educational developments to produce a unique and innovatory educational system. It shows how many of the assumptions on which the scheme was founded were subsequently proven to be wrong, and demonstrates its gradual dismantling through the inter-war years. The thesis considers the development of the Special Entry scheme, initially in response to a shortage of junior officers but later as a means of broadening entry to the officer corps. It contrasts the fortunes of the two schemes in the inter-war period, in which the educational side of the Special Entry scheme was largely unaltered. Overall the thesis seeks to place the development of the Royal Navy’s systems for the selection and early career education of executive officers in context by exploring how and why they were developed and their response to the changing fortunes and shape of the Royal Navy. 4 Contents Title page  p.1 Dedication  p.2 Abstract  p.3 Contents page  p.4 List of tables  p.5 Abbreviations and terminology used herein p.6 Dramatis Personae  p.9 Royal Navy officer entry schemes 1902-1939  p.12 Introduction  p.13 Chapter One  Officer Selection p.75 Chapter Two  The Royal Naval Colleges Dartmouth and Osborne p.139 Chapter Three  The Special Entry p.201 Chapter Four  Cadet Sea Training p.227 Chapter Five  The Education of Midshipmen p.253 Conclusion  p.297 Appendix I  List of committees concerned with the selection and early career education of Royal Navy officers 1902-1939 p.307 Appendix II  HM Ships employed in cadet training 1907-1939 p.309 Bibliography  p.312 5 List of Tables Table 1  Percentage of candidates or selected candidates from various backgrounds 1903-1929; p.106 Table 2  Independent schools producing ten or more Special Entry cadets between June 1925 and November 1929 and military professions of these cadet’s fathers; p.108 Table 3  Annual cost to parents of selected public schools 1933; p.111 Table 4  Executive officers entered per year 1930-1939; p.113 Table 5  Comparison of interview and examination performance of Dartmouth candidates March and July 1939; p.122 Table 6  Highest and lowest marks of successful candidates for Special Entry cadetships, selected years 1928-1936; p.125 Table 7  Marks obtained by candidates taking particular places in Civil Service examinations 1934-1936; p.125 Table 8  Candidates for Special Entry Cadetships who passed the examination but failed the interview 1938-1940; p.128 Table 9 Comparison of promotion rates to commander of Fisher-Selborne and Special Entry officers promoted to midshipman between 1923-1927; p.216 Table 10  Zones from which lieutenant-commanders were selected for promotion to commander during the years 1934-1937; p.218 Table 11  Candidates per advertised vacancy 1928-1930; p.221 6 Abbreviations and terminology employed herein. DTSD  Director of Training and staff duties, a naval officer (generally a captain) employed within the Admiralty and largely responsible for the administration of officer education. He was expected to comment on all questions of officer education and suggest answers to problems, but was rarely required to sit on committees and did not have an active role in formatting syllabi. The role was created as part of the reorganisation of the Admiralty in 1917. Director of Education/Advisor on Education  Civilian employed within the Admiralty and responsible for providing advice on non-professional education. Director of Education 1903-1917 Sir James Alfred Ewing Acting Director of Education 1917-1919 Cyril Ashford Admiralty Advisor on Education 1919-1936 Alexander McMullen HMC  The Headmaster’s Conference, the organisation which represented the interests of independent boy’s secondary schools in the period. The HMC investigated and campaigned on behalf of its members and spoke to the Navy on their behalf. KRs and AIs  King’s Regulations and Admiralty Instructions, the rules governing all aspects of naval life from sunset ceremonies to magazine safety. Procedures for the instruction and examination of all personnel were laid down in KRs and AIs. Amendments to KRs and AIs were, from 1909 onwards, published in Admiralty Weekly Orders; in 1914 these were supplemented by Admiralty Monthly Orders. From 1921 a system of Admiralty Fleet Orders (AFOs) and Confidential Admiralty Fleet Orders (CAFOs) was introduced. Term system  Between 1903 and 1937 each entry to Osborne or Dartmouth was referred to as a term. The college year was divided into three terms along the same lines as a normal school thus there were three entries of cadets every year – in January, May and September. Throughout their time at the colleges, cadets spent most of their time with their term-mates with whom they shared 7 lessons, sports, dormitories, and free time. Contact with cadets in other terms was strictly limited and the terms competed with each other at sports. In 1937 the term system was replaced by a house system similar to that in most public schools. Houses contained cadets of all ages who were allowed to mix freely and took part in sports and social activities together although they continued to share lessons and dormitories only with cadets of the same entry. Term log/ line book  The collective diary kept by the members of a term during their time in the college. It recorded daily events and the achievements the term or its members. Logs and line books were enlivened by drawings, cartoons, poetry and jokes which showcased the creative talents of cadets and demonstrated their feelings about the college. Midshipman’s journal  All midshipmen were required to keep a journal which recorded their lives and work and the activities of their ships. The keeping of a journal was designed to ensure midshipmen took an interest in their work. The contents often include essays about various aspects of naval warfare or the places visited by the ship. Midshipmen were required to illustrate their journals with hand-drawn charts and technical drawings, many included photographs or paintings of the places they visited. Journals were frequently inspected by the officers in charge of the training of midshipmen, and midshipmen could not be promoted unless their journal was up to standard. Gunroom  The living space for midshipmen in a ship in which they ate, worked and studied. The gunroom was ruled by a sub-lieutenant. The term ‘gunroom’ was also used to describe the recreational space set aside for each term at the naval colleges. Snottie’s Nurse  From 1912 onwards the officer in charge of the midshipmen in a ship. The snottie’s nurse was responsible for ensuring the adequate progress of midshipmen in their studies and was nominally responsible for disciplining them although he normally gave the sub-lieutenant of the gunroom a free hand. Abbreviations for archives: TNA  The National Archives 8 CCA  Churchill College Archives BRNC  Archives of Britannia Royal Naval College Dartmouth RNM  Archives of the Royal Naval Museum IWM  Archives of the Imperial War Museum NMM- Archives of the National Maritime Museum 9 Dramatis Personae Admiral of the Fleet John Arbuthnot ‘Jacky’ Fisher 1 st Baron Fisher (1841-1920) - As Second (1902) and then First (1905 to 1910) Sea Lord, Fisher presided over the reform of the Royal Navy including the introduction of new ships, the revision of fleet disposition and an attempt to completely change the way in which Royal Navy officers were educated and employed. Fisher’s reforms form the heart of this thesis. Fisher served again as First Sea Lord in 1914-1915, clashing with Winston Churchill who had previously been his ally in implementing manning reforms. William Palmer, 2 nd Earl of Selborne (1859-1942) – First Lord of the Admiralty from 1900 to 1905. Selborne supported Fisher in his reforming efforts, facilitating the integration of the engineering and executive corps of naval officers. Sir Winston Churchill (1874-1965) - As First Lord of the Admiralty from 1911- 1915, Churchill was a strong advocate of the democratisation of the officer corps. He served again in the role from 1939-1940 and again advocated the democratisation of the officer corps. After becoming Prime Minister in 1940 Churchill retained a keen interest in the Navy. Albert Alexander, 1st Earl Alexander of Hillsborough (1885-1965) – Alexander twice served as First Lord of the Admiralty, from 1929-1931, and from 1940- 1946, the first Labour Party member to hold the post. He was an enthusiastic advocate of the democratisation of the officer corps. Permanent Secretary to the Board of Admiralty (hereafter referred to by the abbreviated form in daily use ‘Secretary of the Admiralty’) - The senior civil servant at the Admiralty and the man to whom most communications concerned with officer education and selection were addressed. He was himself a member of the Board of Admiralty and could have a considerable role in policy making. Holders: 1874-1907 Sir Evan MacGregor 10 1907-1911 Sir Charles Thomas 1911-1917 Sir William Graham Greene 1917-1936 Sir Oswyn Murray 1936-1940 Sir Richard Carter Admiral Sir Archibald Douglas (1842-1913) – As Commander in Chief Portsmouth (1904-1907) Douglas presided over a series of committees concerned with the practical implementation of the Fisher-Selborne Scheme for the education and employment of naval officers. Admiral Sir Herbert Richmond (1871-1946) – A highly capable naval officer and historian, Richmond none the less succeeded in making himself very unpopular within the service. He was the first officer to hold the post of Director of Training and Staff Duties in 1918, subsequently becoming the Captain of the Royal Naval College Greenwich. Richmond finally left the Royal Navy in 1931 and became a distinguished historian, holding the post of Vere-Harmsworth Professor of Naval History at Cambridge University from 1934-1936. Richmond was one of the founders of the Naval Review and wrote extensively on officer education. Sir James Alfred Ewing (1855-1935) – Ewing is sometimes referred to as ‘Alfred’ rather than ‘James’. A distinguished physicist and engineer, Ewing was given the newly created role of Director of Education in 1903. Between 1914 and 1917 his considerable academic talents were exercised as the Head of Room 40, the Admiralty’s cryptanalysis organisation which also employed various civilian staff from Osborne and Dartmouth Naval Colleges. In 1917 Ewing left the Admiralty for Edinburgh University and his naval work came to an end. Alexander McMullen – McMullen’s association with the Royal Navy began with teaching science at Dartmouth, before serving at sea in the First World War. (His performance at Jutland was sufficiently impressive to see him recommended for early promotion). From 1919-1936 he served as Admiralty Advisor on Education. [...]... distinction between education and training in 1902, education was defined as the development of character and seagoing instinct and training as the mastering of knowledge.3 Training was thus, in some ways, subordinate to education the knowledge and skills gained through training contributed to the development of an officer who was master of his men and his environment As the Royal Navy did not confine itself... of Britain on the Royal Navy the selection and education of officers has been a critical factor in the maintenance of naval and, by extension, national strength Officer selection and educational policies have been driven by a wide variety of internal and external factors, and so illustrate both the priorities of the Royal Navy and its relationship with the state Whilst the selection and education of. .. distinctive character of the Royal Marines which was, in itself, a reflection of the distinctive identity of naval officers The distinctive identity of naval officers, and of executive officers in particular, must be understood if the officer selection and education systems are to be placed in context Royal Navy Officer Identities Entering officers at the age of twelve, as demanded by the Fisher-Selborne... watch-keeping and other duties when not busy with the marine detachment The 1907 plans paved the way for their integration into the military branch.37 These aims were never achieved; the Royal Marines continued to enter and train their own officers and these officers continued to be employed solely within their own service 34 TNA ADM 116/862 ‘Report of the Committee Considering Engineer Officers and Royal. .. clear that the naval officers of the future were to be engineers as much as, or more than, they were seamen Moreover the introduction of an engineering based curriculum was not merely a reflection of the changing needs of the service but rather it indicated a revolution in the officer corps and the prospect of completely inter-changeable deck and engineering officers The introduction of the Fisher-Selborne... 12 Introduction Given the acres of print devoted to the careers of the Royal Navy s officers, it is perhaps surprising that so little should be devoted to their selection and early career education. 1 This is particularly so as the distinguished record of the Royal Navy in both peace and war has only been achieved through the skills and efforts of its personnel, in particular its officers Given the. .. to adopt their new uniforms Even then they retained their separate ranks and had no prospect of commanding ships or fleets; full integration into the executive branch was reserved for the officers produced by the Fisher-Selborne scheme.36 The Royal Marines were also included in the Fisher-Selborne scheme, the expectation being that marine officers would take an active role in the running of their ships,... appendix to The Training of Officers, Men and Boys in the Royal Navy 21 Fisher with the support of the First Lord of the Admiralty, William Palmer the Second Earl of Selborne, produced an entirely new system for the entry, training, and employment of officers the Fisher-Selborne scheme, published on Christmas Day 1902 The scheme provided for cadets to enter the Royal Navy at the age of twelve and spend... development was increasingly entrusted to experts ashore, many of them civilians, rather than being undertaken by naval officers 11 For the history of the engineering branch, and engineer officers in particular, see Geoffrey Penn, HMS Thunderer: The Story of the Royal Naval Engineering College Keyham and Manadon (Emsworth: Kenneth Mason, 1984) and Oliver C Walton, 'Officers or Engineers? The Integration and Status... However, even in this period very few commands were given to engineer officers, and the executive officers continued to dominate the service Only those officers fulfilling executive functions can truly be described as professional naval officers In 1957 the American sociologist Samuel Huntington published The Soldier and the State in which he provided a definition of the professional military officer.4