F:/GTE/FINAL (26-10-01)/FRONT MATTER.3D ± 1 ± [1±16/16] 1.11.2001 12:46PM Ga sTurbine Engineering Ha ndbook Second Edition F:/GTE/FINAL (26-10-01)/FRONT MATTER.3D ± 2 ± [1±16/16] 1.11.2001 12:46PM F:/GTE/FINAL (26-10-01)/FRONT MATTER.3D ± 3 ± [1±16/16] 1.11.2001 12:46PM GasTurbine Engineering Handbook Second Edition Meherwan P. Boyce Managing Partner, The Boyce Consultancy Fellow, American Society of Mechanical Engineers Fellow, Institute of Diesel and Gas Turbine Engineers, U.K. Boston Oxford Auckland Johannesburg Melbourne New Delhi F:/GTE/FINAL (26-10-01)/FRONT MATTER.3D ± 4 ± [1±16/16] 1.11.2001 12:46PM Gulf Professional Publishing is an imprint of Butterworth  ±Heinemann. Copyright # 2002 by Butterworth  ±Heinemann. Previously copyrighted # 1995. 1982 by Gulf Publishing Company, Houston, Texas A member of the Reed Elsevier group All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Recognizing the importance of preserving what has been written, Butterworth  ±Heinemann prints its books on acid-free paper whenever possible. Butterworth  ±Heinemann supports the efforts of American Forests and the Global ReLeaf program in its campaign for the betterment of trees, forests, and our environment. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Boyce, Meherwan P. Gas turbine engineering handbook / Meherwan P. Boyce. ± 2nd ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-88415-732-6 (alk. paper) 1. Gas-turbines±Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Title. TJ778 .B67 2001 621.43 H 3±dc21 2001040520 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Illustration Credit: Unless otherwise cited, the illustrations appearing in this book are supplied courtesy and used with the permission of the Turbomachinery Laboratories, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843. These illustrations were published and are copyright # by the Turbomachinery Laboratories in the annual proceedings of their Turbomachinery Symposia. The publisher offers special discounts on bulk orders of this book. For information, please contact: Manager of Special Sales Butterworth  ±Heinemann 225 Wildwood Avenue Woburn, MA 01801-2041 Tel: 781-904-2500 Fax: 781-904-2620 For information on all Gulf Professional Publishing publications available, contact our World Wide Web home page at: http://www.gulfpp.com 10987654321 Printed in the United States of America F:/GTE/FINAL (26-10-01)/FRONT MATTER.3D ± 5 ± [1±16/16] 1.11.2001 12:46PM To the memory of my father, Phiroz H.J. Boyce F:/GTE/FINAL (26-10-01)/FRONT MATTER.3D ± 6 ± [1±16/16] 1.11.2001 12:46PM F:/GTE/FINAL (26-10-01)/FRONT MATTER.3D ± 7 ± [1±16/16] 1.11.2001 12:46PM Contents Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x Preface to the First Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xii Foreword to the First Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv Part I Design: Theory and Practice 1 An Overview of Gas Turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Gas Turbine Cycle in the Combined Cycle or Cogeneration Mode. Gas Turbine Performance. Gas Turbine Design Considerations. Categories of Gas Turbines. Major Gas Turbine Compon- ents. Fuel Type. Environmental Effects. Turbine Expander Section. Materials. Coatings. Gas Turbine Heat Recovery. Supplementary Firing of Heat Recovery Systems. Bibliography. 2 Theoretical and Actual Cycle Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 The Brayton Cycle. Actual Cycle Analysis. Summation of Cycle Analysis. A General Overview of Combined Cycle Plants. Compressed Air Energy Storage Cycle. Power Augmentation. Summation of the Power Augmentation Systems. Bibliography. 3 Compressor and Turbine Performance Characteristics . . . . . . . . . .112 Turbomachine Aerothermodynamics. The Aerothermal Equations. Efficiencies. Dimensional Analysis. Compressor Performance Characteristics. Turbine Performance Characteristics. Gas Turbine Performance Computation. Bibliography. 4 Performance and Mechanical Standards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .141 Major Variables for a Gas Turbine Application. Performance Standards. Mechanical Parameters. Application of the Mechanical Standards to the Gas Turbine. Specifications. Bibliography. 5 Rotor Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .178 Mathematical Analysis. Application to Rotating Machines. Critical Speed Calculations for Rotor Bearing Systems. Electromechanical Systems and Analogies. Campbell Diagram. Bibliography. Part II Major Components 6 Centrifugal Compressors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .221 Centrifugal Compressor Components. Centrifugal Compressor Performance. Compressor Surge. Process Centrifugal Compressors. Bibliography. 7 Axial-Flow Compressors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .275 Blade and Cascade Nomenclature. Elementary Airfoil Theory. Laminar-Flow Airfoils. Cascade Test. Velocity Triangles. Degree of Reaction. Radial Equilibrium. Diffusion Factor. The Incidence Rule. The Deviation Rule. Compressor Stall. Performance Characteristics of an Axial-Flow Compressor. Stall Analysis of an Axial-Flow Compressor. Bibliography. 8 Radial-Inflow Turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .319 Description. Theory. Turbine Design Considerations. Losses in a Radial-Inflow Turbine. Performance of a Radial-Inflow Turbine. Bibliography. vii F:/GTE/FINAL (26-10-01)/FRONT MATTER.3D ± 8 ± [1±16/16] 1.11.2001 12:46PM 9 Axial-Flow Turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .337 Turbine Geometry. Impulse Turbine. The Reaction Turbine. Turbine Blade Cooling Concepts. Turbine Blade Cooling Design. Cooled-Turbine Aerodynamics. Turbine Losses. Bibliography. 10 Combustors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .370 Combustion Terms. Combustion. Combustion Chamber Design. Fuel Atomization and Ignition. Typical Combustor Arrangements. Air Pollution Problems. Catalytic Combustion. Bibliography. Part III Materials, Fuel Technology, and Fuel Systems 11 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .411 General Metallurgical Behaviors in Gas Turbines. Gas Turbine Materials. Compressor Blades. Forgings and Nondestructive Testing. Coatings. Bibliography. 12 Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .436 Fuel Specifications. Fuel Properties. Fuel Treatment. Heavy Fuels. Cleaning of Turbine Components. Fuel Economics. Operating Experience. Heat Tracing of Piping Systems. Types of Heat-Tracing Systems. Storage of Liquids. Bibliography. Part IV Auxiliary Components and Accessories 13 Bearings and Seals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .469 Bearings. Bearing Design Principles. Tilting-Pad Journal Bearings. Bearing Materials. Bearing and Shaft Instabilities. Thrust Bearings. Factors Affecting Thrust-Bearing Design. Thrust- Bearing Power Loss. Seals. Noncontacting Seals. Mechanical (Face) Seals. Mechanical Seal Selection and Application. Seal Systems. Associated Oil System. Dry Gas Seals. Bibliography. 14 Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .521 Gear Types. Factors Affecting Gear Design. Manufacturing Processes. Installation and Initial Operation. Bibliography. Part V Installation, Operation, and Maintenance 15 Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .541 Basic Oil System. Lubricant Selection. Oil Sampling and Testing. Oil Contamination. Filter Selection. Cleaning and Flushing. Coupling Lubrication. Lubrication Management Program. Bibliography. 16 Spectrum Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .558 Vibration Measurement. Taping Data. Interpretation of Vibration Spectra. Subsynchronous Vibration Analysis Using RTA. Synchronous and Harmonic Spectra. Bibliography. 17 Balancing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .584 Rotor Imbalance. Balancing Procedures. Application of Balancing Techniques. User's Guide for Multiplane Balancing. Bibliography. 18 Couplings and Alignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .605 Gear Couplings. Metal Diaphragm Couplings. Metal Disc Couplings. Turbomachinery Uprates. Shaft Alignment. Bibliography. viii Contents F:/GTE/FINAL (26-10-01)/FRONT MATTER.3D ± 9 ± [1±16/16] 1.11.2001 12:46PM 19 Control Systems and Instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .634 Control Systems. Condition Monitoring Systems. Monitoring Software. Implementation of a Condition Monitoring System. Life Cycle Costs. Temperature Measurement. Pressure Meas- urement. Vibration Measurement. Auxiliary System Monitoring. The Gas Turbine. Failure Diagnostics. Mechanical Problem Diagnostics. Summary. Bibliography. 20 Gas Turbine Performance Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .692 Introduction. Performance Codes. Flow Straighteners. Gas Turbine Test. Gas Turbine. Perform- ance Curves. Performance Computations. Gas Turbine Performance Calculations. Plant Losses. Bibliography. 21 Maintenance Techniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .722 Philosophy of Maintenance. Training of Personnel. Tools and Shop Equipment. Turbo- machinery Cleaning. Hot-Section Maintenance. Compressor Maintenance. Bearing Maintenance. Coupling Maintenance. Rejuvenation of Used Turbine Blades. Repair and Rehabilitation of Turbomachinery Foundations. Large Machinery Startup Procedure. Typical Problems Encountered in Gas Turbines. Bibliography. Appendix: Equivalent Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .778 Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .782 About the Author . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .799 Contents ix F:/GTE/FINAL (26-10-01)/FRONT MATTER.3D ± 10 ± [1±16/16] 1.11.2001 12:46PM Preface Gas Turbine Engineering Handbook discusses the design, fabrication, installa- tion, operation, and maintenance of gas turbines. The second edition is not only an updating of the technology in gas turbines, which has seen a great leap forward in the 1990s, but also a rewriting of various sections to better answer today's problems in the design, fabrication, installation, operation, and main- tenance of gas turbines. The new advanced gas turbines have firing tempera- tures of 2600  F (1427  C), and pressure ratio's exceeding 40:1 in aircraft gas turbines, and over 30:1 in industrial turbines. Advances in materials, and coat- ings have spurred this technology, and the new edition has treated this new area in great detail. The emphasis on low NO x emissions from gas turbines has led to the development of a new breed of dry low NO x combustors, which are dealt in depth in this new edition. The second edition deals with an upgrade of most of the applicable codes both in the area of performance and mechanical standards. The book has been written to provide an overall view for the experienced engineer working in a specialized aspect of the subject and for the young engineering graduate or undergraduate student who is being exposed to the turbomachinery field for the first time. The book will be very useful as a textbook for undergraduate turbomachinery courses as well as for in-house company training programs related to the petrochemical, power generation, and offshore industries. The use of gas turbines in the petrochemical, power generation, and off- shore industries has mushroomed in the past few years. In the past 10 years, the power industry has embraced the Combined Cycle Power Plants and the new high efficiency gas turbines are at the center of this growth segment of the industry. This has also led to the rewriting of chapters 1 and 2. It is to these users and manufacturers of gas turbines that this book is directed. The book will give the manufacturer a glimpse of some of the problems asso- ciated with his equipment in the field and help the user to achieve maximum performance efficiency and high availability of his gas turbines. I have been involved in the research, design, operation, and maintenance of gas turbines since the early 1960s. I have also taught courses at the graduate and undergraduate level at the University of Oklahoma and Texas A&M University, and now, in general, to the industry. There have been over 3,000 students through my courses designed for the engineer in the field representing over 400 companies from around the world. Companies have x [...]... about 20 :1 for a regenerative system compared to 40 :1 for the G:/GTE/FINAL (26 -10 - 01) /CHAPTER 1. 3D ± 13 ± [1 57/57] 1. 11 .20 01 3:42PM An Overview of Gas Turbines 13 50 45 22 00°F 12 0 4°C 40 24 00°F 13 16°C 40 3000°F 16 49°C 30 20 17 15 11 13 35 Efficiency % 28 00°F 15 38°C 26 00°F 1 427 °C 30 18 00 20 00 9 22 00 7 25 24 00 20 00°F 10 94°C 18 00°F 9 82 C 20 Pr =5 26 00 28 00 3000 15 10 5 0 40.00 60.00 80.00 10 0.00 12 0 .00 14 0.00... of Gas Turbines 10 7 Simple cycle gas turbine (25 00  F /13 71  C) natural gas fired 300±350 75 82 8000 45 5.8 0 .23 88±95% 97±99% 10 ± 12 Simple cycle gas turbine oil fired 400±500 8 322 ± 822 9 41 6 .2 0 .25 85±90% 95±97% 12 16 Simple cycle gas turbine crude fired 500±600 10 6 62 1 12 5 0 32 13 .5 0 .25 75±80% 90±95% 12 16 Regenerative gas turbine natural gas fired 375±575 6 824 ± 720 0 50 6.0 0 .25 86±93% 96±98% 12 16 ... 14 0.00 16 0.00 18 0.00 20 0.00 22 0.00 24 0.00 26 0.00 Net Output Work (btu/lb-air) Figure 1- 6 Performance map of a simple cycle gas turbine 50.00 45.00 40.00 Efficiency % 35.00 40 30.00 7 25 .00 Pr = 5 20 .00 30 20 15 13 11 9 22 00°F 20 00°F 12 0 4°C 10 94°C 24 00°F 13 16°C 26 00°F 1 427 °C 28 00°F 15 38°C 3000°F 16 49°C 20 00 18 00 22 00 24 00 26 00 18 00°F 9 82 C 28 00 3000 15 .00 10 .00 5.00 - 50.00 10 0.00 15 0.00 20 0.00 25 0.00... ($/kWh) 0.007±0. 015 0.005±0.0 12 0.003±0.008 0.006±0. 010 0.005±0. 010 0.0 01 0.004 0.007±0.0 12 0.006±0. 011 0.005±0. 010 Gas Turbine Engineering Handbook Technology Comparison G:/GTE/FINAL (26 -10 - 01) /CHAPTER 1. 3D ± 4 ± [1 57/57] 1. 11 .20 01 3:42PM 4 Table 1- 1 Economic Comparison of Various Generation Technologies G:/GTE/FINAL (26 -10 - 01) /CHAPTER 1. 3D ± 5 ± [1 57/57] 1. 11 .20 01 3:42PM An Overview of Gas Turbines 5... F:/GTE/FINAL (26 -10 - 01) /FRONT MATTER.3D ± 16 ± [1 16 /16 ] 1. 11 .20 01 12 : 46PM G:/GTE/FINAL (26 -10 - 01) /CHAPTER 1. 3D ± 2 ± [1 57/57] 1. 11 .20 01 3:42PM Diesel Engine Gas Engine Simple Cycle Gas Turbine Micro Turbine Fuel Cell Solar Energy Photovoltic Cell Wind Bio Mass River Hydro Product Rollout Available Available Available Available 19 96± 20 10 Available Available 20 20 Available Size Range (kW) 20 ± 25 ,000‡ 50±7000‡... Temperature G:/GTE/FINAL (26 -10 - 01) /CHAPTER 1. 3D ± 10 ± [1 57/57] 1. 11 .20 01 3:42PM 10 Gas Turbine Engineering Handbook 45 40 Pressure ratio 35 30 25 Pressure ratio aircraft Pressure ratio industrial 20 15 10 5 0 19 40 19 50 19 60 19 70 19 80 19 90 20 00 20 10 Year Figure 1- 3 Development of engine pressure ratio over the years 16 00 14 00 Development of Single Crystal Blades TEMPERATURE (C) 12 0 0 10 00 Temp aircraft Temp... 1. 43 82 89% 94±97% 36± 42 Diesel generator-diesel fired 400±500 75 82 8000 45 6 .2 4.7 90±95% 96±98% 12 16 Diesel generator-power plant oil fired 600±700 8 12 4 ±8570 42 7 .2 4.7 85±90% 92 95% 16 18 Gas engine generator power plant 650±750 7300±77 01 47 5 .2 4.7 92 96% 96±98% 12 16 G:/GTE/FINAL (26 -10 - 01) /CHAPTER 1. 3D ± 8 ± [1 57/57] 1. 11 .20 01 3:42PM Capital Cost $/kW Gas Turbine Engineering Handbook Net Efficiency... Turbine Engineering Handbook 10 000 G:/GTE/FINAL (26 -10 - 01) /CHAPTER 1. 3D ± 6 ± [1 57/57] 1. 11 .20 01 3:42PM 6 12 0 00 G:/GTE/FINAL (26 -10 - 01) /CHAPTER 1. 3D ± 7 ± [1 57/57] 1. 11 .20 01 3:42PM 80 70 EFFICIENCY 60 50 40 30 20 0 Simple Cycle Gas Turbine Regenerative Gas Turbine Steam Turbine Combined Cycle Power Advanced Gas Turbine Combined Cycle Power Plant Plant TYPE OF PLANTS Figure 1 -2 Typical efficiencies of... G:/GTE/FINAL (26 -10 - 01) /CHAPTER 1. 3D ± 21 ± [1 57/57] 1. 11 .20 01 3:42PM An Overview of Gas Turbines 21 Figure 1- 11 A medium size industrial gas turbine (Courtesy Solar Turbines Incorporated.) side combustors and have lower turbine inlet temperatures compared to their American counterparts Figure 1- 11 shows an Industrial Type Gas Turbine The gasifier turbine is usually a 2 3 stage axial turbine with an... future These gas turbines have in many cases regenerators or recuperators to enhance the efficiency of these turbines Figure 1- 12 shows such a new recuperated gas turbine design, which has an efficiency of 38% G:/GTE/FINAL (26 -10 - 01) /CHAPTER 1. 3D ± 22 ± [1 57/57] 1. 11 .20 01 3:42PM 22 Gas Turbine Engineering Handbook Figure 1- 12 A recuperative medium-sized industrial gas turbine (Courtesy Solar Turbines . F:/GTE/FINAL (26 -10 - 01) /FRONT MATTER.3D ± 1 ± [1 16 /16 ] 1. 11 .20 01 12 : 46PM Ga sTurbine Engineering Ha ndbook Second Edition F:/GTE/FINAL (26 -10 - 01) /FRONT MATTER.3D ± 2 ± [1 16 /16 ] 1. 11 .20 01 12 : 46PM F:/GTE/FINAL. Phiroz H.J. Boyce F:/GTE/FINAL (26 -10 - 01) /FRONT MATTER.3D ± 6 ± [1 16 /16 ] 1. 11 .20 01 12 : 46PM F:/GTE/FINAL (26 -10 - 01) /FRONT MATTER.3D ± 7 ± [1 16 /16 ] 1. 11 .20 01 12 : 46PM Contents Preface . . . . . 12 : 46PM G:/GTE/FINAL (26 -10 - 01) /CHAPTER 1. 3D ± 2 ± [1 57/57] 1. 11 .20 01 3:42PM G:/GTE/FINAL (26 -10 - 01) /CHAPTER 1. 3D ± 4 ± [1 57/57] 1. 11 .20 01 3:42PM Table 1- 1 Economic Comparison of Various Generation