220 Zhong Chuangguang et al.Chapter 9 Pesticides in the People’s Republic of China Zhong Chuangguang, Chen Shunhua, Cai Fulong, Liao Yuanqi, Pen Yefang, and Zhao Xiaokui INTRODUCTION There are currently more than 1.26 billion people in the People’s Republic of China and providing an adequate food supply for such a large population is one of the nation’s biggest problems. To meet the challenges of a rapidly increasing population and a noticeable shortage of major natural resources for agriculture, China has had to develop more sustainable and productive agricultural systems (Wen et al., 1992). The food supply problem may be solved by controlling population growth, increasing agricultural production through enhanced use of hybrid seeds and fossil-energy-derived inputs such as synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, or through some combination of the two. Given the current agricultural cultivation practices in China, the most effective method for increasing the grain crop yield is to use pesticides for crop protection. China has 100 M ha of cultivated land and 140 M ha of sown land. There are more than 1,350 kinds of pests – these include > 770 insect species, > 550 diseases, > 80 weed species, and > 20 rodent species – that may harm crops. With this in mind, it is not surprising that using pesticide for pest control is the most popular method for limiting pest damage to crops. In 1950, China began to produce DDT and BHC, the beginning of organic pesticide synthesis in China. In the subsequent half century more than 700 pesticide factories have been established with an annual production capacity in 1994 of 555,000 T of a.i.(s). In recent years, the actual output of pesticides was approxi- mately 210,000 T, making China second in the world in pesticide production. There are more than 170 pesticide a.i.(s) with more than 600 formulations based on them currently in production in China. Annual export of pesticides is about 30,000 T comprising 30 a.i.(s), while annual imports total about 10,000 T. In recent years, insecticides accounted for 73 percent of the total domestic production, fungicides 12 percent, herbicides 13 percent, and plant growth regulators 1.3 per- cent. Of these, 37 percent was used to control pests in rice (Oryza sativa L.) paddy fields, 14 percent was applied on other grain crops, 32 percent was used in fruit and vegetable production, and the remaining 17 percent was used in other crops. Pesticide use is closely related to the level of agricultural education and training. Agricultural production methods in China have not been standardized so that, consequently, farmer quality remains low. Crop cultivation and management © 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts Pesticides in the People’s Republic of China 221 systems, such as for rotation cycles, fertility management, pest management, etc., have not been perfected or standardized for individual crops. Consequently, pesticides are used indiscriminately and the primary pesticide application technique in the countryside remains hand-application. This is one of the primary reasons extensive environmental pesticide pollution exists in China. It is estimated that pesticide waste during application is 50 to 70 percent. In addition, pollutants from pesticide factories increase environmental pollution. Fortunately environmental protection awareness has been raised in the past two decades. Laws and regulations issued by the central and local governments guide the production and application of pesticides so as to minimize their impact on the environment. PESTICIDE MANAGEMENT IN CHINA The regulatory framework for the control of pesticide use in the People’s Republic of China has not been developed. However, some pesticide management guidelines have been issued by the central and local governments. In the 1950s and 1960s, the key goal of pesticide management was to guard against acute human poisoning and to control production quality. In the 1970s, pesticide residue problems emerged, and all uses of mercury were prohibited. DDT, BHC, mercury and arsenic formula- tions, and chlordimeform were prohibited from use on tea, tobacco, fruit, and vegetable crops. Use standards began to be adopted in the late 1970s by the Institute for the Control of Agrochemicals in the Ministry of Agriculture (ICAMA). In the early 1980s, pesticide registration was established and comprehensive pesticide evaluation was required. This process examined and evaluated control efficacy, product quality, pesticide toxicity, residue levels, and environmental impacts of pesticides to be registered. In 1982, concurrent with the establishment of the pesticide registration system, the Pesticide Regulation and Evaluation committee was formed. The committee was administered by ICAMA and had five branches: toxicity, environmental protection, production, circulation and effect, and residues. Next, in 1984, the ‘Standards for Safe Application of Pesticides’ was promulgated, followed by the ‘Guidelines for Safe Application of Pesticides I, II, III, …’ com- mencing in 1987. An inspection system for post registration pesticide evaluation and monitoring was also developed, showing that pesticide management in China had begun to become regulated and standardized. Chronological summary of pesticide regulations in China Operative Rules for the Safe Use of ‘1605’ and ‘1059’ Pesticides (draft) issued by the Ministries of Agriculture and Public Health, and China’s National Supply and Marketing General Cooperative, 26 March 1957. This revision of the ‘Ways’ for the safe use of the pesticides ‘1605’ (parathion) and ‘1059’ stipulated that these two OP pesticides should not be used for the control of pests on vegetables. The revision was prompted by the recognition of instances © 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts 222 Zhong Chuangguang et al. of human poisonings by the insecticide ‘1605’. Research had demonstrated the chemical structure, poisoning mechanism, uptake routes, symptoms, clinical and experimental diagnosis, first aid, treatment, and poisoning prevention for this pesticide. ‘Ways for Safe Use of “1605” and “1059” (draft)’ issued by the Ministries of Public Health and Agriculture, and China’s National Supply and Marketing General Cooperative, 11 July 1959. The ‘Ways’ limited the scope of use of these two OP pesticides, stipulating that they must not be used on fruit trees whose fruit were nearly mature and on vegetables just prior to harvest (no set number of days before harvest was specified). Their use for controlling medical and veterinary pests, e.g. mosquitoes, flies, and bedbugs, was also strictly prohibited. The ‘Ways’ stipulated details of pesticide transport and storage, preparation, application, and other matters requiring attention. Attachments to this regulation included: a) temporary first-aid methods for pesticide poisoning; advanced emergency methods in the case of pesticide poisoning by arsenic preparations, BHC, ‘1605’, mercury preparations, sodium fluoride, fluorine sodium silicate, etc.; and a listing of general antidotes; b) symptoms of ‘1605’ poisoning and treatment methods (for reference); and c) poisoning symptoms of OP formulations, prevention, and emergency treatment methods (for reference). Regulations to Strengthen Safe Management Practices for Pesticides (draft) jointly issued by eight ministries including the Agriculture Ministry, 4 September 1959. Detailed regulations were published about pesticide production, supply, transport, management, and use. It declared, for the first time, that pesticide factories must be placed some distance from sources of drinking water and civilian houses. Siting of a pesticide manufacturer’s facilities must be approved by the Chemical Industry Ministry and with the consent of local government. Equipment for processing poisonous gases, wastewater, and hazardous chemicals must be installed inside the factory. It was also stipulated that the product be securely packed; exhibit an eye-catching special mark; and be accompanied by a detailed booklet of directions about properties, uses, safe storage, and application of the pesticide. Several regulations about strengthening management of quality and price for chemical pesticides issued by the Ministries of Chemical Industry, Commerce, and Agriculture, 17 November 1959. As a result of the establishment of large numbers of chemical pesticide factories in various parts of China, production increased rapidly, but quality control fell short of expectations. Several regulations were approved to improve quality control and regularize the price of chemical pesticides. It was proposed that state, regional, and factory pesticide standards be shown on the label and the true composition also be listed on the package. New products or existing chemical pesticides produced by a new factory must be approved at the provincial level prior to production and sale. Rules for Safe Use of Highly Toxic OP Pesticides (Revised draft) issued by the Ministries of Agriculture and Public Health, and China’s National Supply and Marketing General Cooperative, 10 March 1964. © 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts Pesticides in the People’s Republic of China 223 Regulations for Trial Implementation of Engagement, Management, and Safety of Highly Toxic Pesticides issued by the Bureau of Agricultural Means of Production of the National Supply and Marketing General Cooperative, 4 March 1964. Matters Applicable to the Safe Use of Highly Toxic Pesticides issued by the Ministries of Agriculture and Forestry, 19 April 1971. A report establishing a national leadership group for pesticides jointly advanced by the Ministries of Commerce, Foreign Trade, Public Health, Chemical Industry, Agriculture, and Forestry, and the China Academy of Sciences promulgated 17 June 1971. The State Council approved establishment of this six-member group with responsibility to: a) strengthen collaboration among production, use, and research departments and suggest to the State Council pesticide programs, production planning, and the future overall arrangement and development direction of pesticide production; b) stop the importation and production of mercury-containing pesticides and organize related units to cooperate on the development of pesticides with high performance and low toxicity to replace highly toxic pesticides such as mercury preparations; c) strengthen the work promoting the safe use of pesticides; d) energetically develop the production of new pesticides with high performance and low toxicity; e) strengthen research on biological pesticides; f) develop pesticides from plant and microbial sources; g) advance standards limiting pesticide residues post application; h) strengthen management of the details of pesticide transport, supply, and storage. Methods for Trial Implementation of a New Pesticide’s Use and Management issued by the Ministry of Commerce, 1 January 1973. Suggestions about Safe and Reasonable Use of Pesticides promulgated by the Ministries of Agriculture, Forestry, Fuels, Chemical Industry, and Commerce, 12 December 1973. This proposed that pesticides with high performance and low toxicity should be aggressively used in food, tea, tobacco, vegetable, melon, and fruit crops instead of pesticides with high residues and toxicity. Further the scope of use of each pesticide should be stipulated. Report on Preventing Pesticides from Contaminating Food by the National Planning Committee on 20 August 1974, approved by the National Council, and promulgated to each province and autonomous region. The problem of pesticide pollution and accumulation was addressed. Related departments were requested to organize trial production of new pesticides with high performance and low toxicity. The application of pesticides with high residual toxicity, e.g. DDT, BHC, Hg preparations, and As preparations, to crops of tea, tobacco, fruits, and vegetables should be forbidden or severely limited. Announcement on the Prohibition of the Use of Pesticides with High Residues on Crops promulgated by the Ministries of Agriculture and Forestry, and the National Supply and Marketing General Cooperative and issued 1 January 1978. During 1977, DDT and BHC residues were measured in 334 lots of tea from © 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts 224 Zhong Chuangguang et al. 10 provinces. The results showed that residues from BHC and DDT in tea were a very serious problem. For 301 lots (90 percent), BHC residues exceeded the then current standard of 0.2 ppm – the highest concentration measured was 1.772 ppm. DDT exceeded the then current standard of 0.2 ppm in 154 lots or 40 percent. The highest concentration measured was 10.966 ppm. The announcement requested all provinces to implement the National Committee’s report on preventing food contamination, which banned the use of DDT, BHC, and other pesticides with high residues on crops. It further requested provinces to strengthen manage- ment of the safe use of pesticides and to encourage development of pesticides with high performance and low toxicity to quickly solve the problem of high pesticide residues on food crops. Prevention Methods for Insects, Molds, Rodents, and Sparrows in Stored Grains issued by the Ministry of Commerce and implemented 1 August 1978. Strict limits were set for the use of chemical preparations to control insect, mold, rodent, and sparrow pests of stored grains. Directions were issued for using chemical preparations and application safety standards were set for individuals and the public. Regulations on the Management of Pesticide Quality (a draft for trial implemen- tation) issued by the Ministries of Chemical Industry, Agriculture, and Forestry, and the National Supply and Marketing General Cooperative on 25 November 1978. Methods for Trial Implementation of the Scientific Use of Pesticides promul- gated by the Ministries of Agriculture and Chemical Industry, and the National Supply and Marketing General Cooperative on 27 October 1980. Suggestions were issued about the scientific use, development, production, supply and marketing, and labeling of pesticides. The document encouraged users to achieve the maximum insect, disease, and weed control for the greatest economic benefit using the minimum amount of pesticide while ensuring normal crop growth without harm to humans and livestock. It also stated that environmental pollution should be limited as much as possible. Regulations for the Safe Use of Chlordimeform issued by the Ministry of Agriculture on 9 December 1980. Because of the potential teratogenicity of chlordimeform, its use was strictly limited to one application per rice crop cycle. For applications of 25 g ha –1 a.i., the time of application must be no less than 40 days prior to harvest and for applications of 50 g ha –1 a.i., the time of application must be not less than 70 days from harvest. Chlordimeform was banned from use in other food crops, oil crops, fruits, veg- etables, medicinal materials, tea, tobacco, sugarcane, and beet crops. Management Methods of Foreign Company’s Tests of Pesticide Performance Carried out in Chinese Fields (for trial implementation) implemented by the Ministry of Agriculture, 1 June 1981. Detailed regulations were issued about requirements for foreign companies to carry out field pesticide performance experiments in China. ICAMA was designated to examine and verify data submitted from field tests. © 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts Pesticides in the People’s Republic of China 225 Standards for Safe Use of Pesticides issued by the Ministry of Agriculture in April 1981. The standards were developed on the basis of many years of research and field trials organized by the Ministry of Agriculture and conducted by 43 universities and institutes. The goal of this effort was to minimize pesticide residues on farm produce and prevent soil and water pollution while at the same time effectively control disease, insect, and weed pests. The standard listed the recommended application rate, the maximum application rate, the maximum number of applications, and the safe interval for multiple applications for various pesticides. Regulations for Pesticide Registration by the Ministries of Agriculture, Forestry, Chemical Industry, Public Health, and Commerce, and the Lead Group for Environmental Protection of the State Council issued 10 April 1982 and imple- mented 1 October 1982. The regulation was formulated in accordance with the ‘Law of Environmental Protection of the People’s Republic of China (for trial implementation)’ to protect the environment; safeguard people’s health; promote the development of agri- culture, forestry and animal husbandry; and strengthen pesticide management. Three classes of pesticide registration exist: a) regular or variety registration for pesticides with a.i.(s) that have not previously been registered; b) supplemental or additional registration for pesticides whose a.i.(s) have been registered but their scope of use, content, or formulation has changed; c) temporary registration for pesticides used in field trials to gather performance data or pesticides used under special conditions. When applying for pesticide registration, certain informational materials must be submitted along with the application. These include the pesticide name, structure and formula, and the primary physical and chemical properties of the pesticide. Also, the pesticide’s production and manufacturing process must be described with a brief synopsis of the raw materials used and waste management procedures for any wastes and byproducts, termed ‘three-waste’ management for the three compartments affected – soil, water, and air. Product information must be submitted including technical product description; efficacy test conditions, test methods, and test results; packaging; package labeling; product storage conditions and expiration date; and transportation and safety requirements. The application techniques for the pesticide should be described along with its effectiveness, potential harmful effects, use method and scope, target organisms, and its effect on non-target organisms, if any. A sample booklet of use directions should be submitted. Toxicity test results from acute, subacute, and chronic tests should be submitted with infor- mation about the pesticide’s potential to cause carcinogenic, teratogenic, or mutagenic effects in organisms. Pesticide residue data, metabolism studies, and degradation pathways and degradation products in crops and soils must be described with the analytical methods used in the studies. Also, suggestions on standards for food hygiene, labor hygiene, and safe use must be included. The pesticide’s effect on environmental quality, its potential for soil and water pollution, and its fate and transport in air, water, soil, plants, and ecosystems must be described. © 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts 226 Zhong Chuangguang et al. Regulations for Safe Use of Pesticides issued by the Ministries of Agriculture, Animal Husbandry and Fishery, and Public Health, 5 June 1982. Pesticides were classified according to a comprehensive toxicity evaluation: highly-toxic, medium-toxicity and low-toxicity. Many pesticides were included in the general ‘Standard for the Safe Use of Pesticides’ while others had specific regulations. Highly toxic pesticides cannot be used on vegetables, tea, fruit trees, medicinal materials, and other food crops. They must not be used for medical and veterinary purposes and must not be used to kill rodents (except rats). High-residue pesticides, e.g. BHC, DDT, and chlordane, must not be used on such crops as fruit trees, vegetables, tea, medicinal materials, tobacco, coffee, taro, and others. Chlordimeform may be used for pest control only once per rice crop cycle and only under a stipulated safe pre-harvest interval. In addition, this regulation also stipulated rules for pesticide purchase, use (with precautionary measures, if any), transport, storage, selection of qualified application staff, and personal protection procedures. Temporary Regulation for Management of the Pesticide Industry issued by the Ministry of Chemical Industry, 17 July 1982 and implemented 1 January 1983. All pesticide products and units producing these products were brought under the management of this regulation. Every pesticide enterprise must operate in a safe, responsible manner, enthusiastically carry forward the ‘three-waste’ concept of waste management, prevent environmental pollution, and build and maintain clean, safe factories. They must also strive to improve their products, e.g. reformula- tion. The output of pesticides with high residue levels, e.g. BHC, must be limited yearly. It established the system of licenses for pesticide production. Detailed Rules for Implementation of Regulations for Pesticide Registration promulgated by the Ministries of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry and Fishery, September 1982. Published as ‘Examination and Approval Methods for Pesticide Registration’, this regulation specified forming an examination and approval committee for pesticide registration. Several annexes were included: a) Request for Data from Residue Tests in Pesticide Registration; b) Request for Data from Field Tests of Performance in Pesticide Registration; c) Temporary Regulation for Test Methods of Pesticide Toxicity (for trial); and d) Procedures for Toxicological Evaluation of Food Safety (for trial). Law for Environmental Protection of the People’s Republic of China (for trial) passed 13 September 1979. Chapter 3 section 21 of the ‘Environmental Protection’ law directs the pesticide industry to actively develop high-performance, low-toxicity, and low-residue pesticides. It further directs expansion of integrated pest management practices, biological pest management, and the reasonable use of wastewater for irrigation and directs the industry to prevent pollution of soil and crops. Chapter 3 section 24 of the law specifies that toxic chemicals must be strictly registered and managed. Highly toxic materials must be strictly sealed to prevent leakage during storage and transport. © 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts Pesticides in the People’s Republic of China 227 Law of Food Hygiene of the People’s Republic of China (for trial) issued 19 November 1982 and implemented 1 July 1983. Chapter 5 section 16 of this law directs that the safety of chemicals such as pesticides and fertilizers must be examined by the hygiene administrative depart- ments of the State Council. Standards for pesticide regulation in China Standard for the safe use of pesticides, BG4285-84, issued by the Ministry of Environmental Protection and Urban and Rural Construction, 18 May 1984. Measurement of OP pesticides in water by gas chromatography, GB13192-91, issued by the National Bureau of Environmental Protection, approved 31 August 1991 and implemented 1 June 1992. Hygiene standard for drinking water, GB5749-85, issued by the Public Health Ministry 16 August 1985 and implemented 1 October 1986. The peak concen- tration standard for DDT and BHC was stipulated as DDT at 1 ppb and BHC at 5 ppb. Water quality standard for fisheries (trial), TJ 35-79, issued by the Lead Group for Environmental Protection of the State Council, the National Construction Committee, the National Economics Committee, and the General Bureau of Aquatic Products in March 1979. The standard set was DDT <l ppb, BHC <2 ppb, and malathion <5 ppb. Water quality standard for sea water, GBH2.2-82 and GB3097-82, issued by the Lead Group for Environmental Protection of the State Council 6 April 1982. The highest permitted concentration of OCs was set as 1st kind at 1 ppb, 2nd kind at 2 ppb, and 3rd kind at 4 ppb. Water quality standard for wastewater in city sewers, GJ18-86, issued by the Ministry of Environmental Protection and Urban and Rural Construction 11 December 1986 and implemented 1 July 1989. The highest concentration of OPs allowed is 0.5 ppm. The residue content of BHC and DDT in food, GBn53-77, issued by the National Bureau of Standard Measurement and trial implemented since 1 May 1978. Maximum residue levels presented in Table 9.1. Sanitary standard for design of industrial enterprises, TJ 36-79, issued by the Public Health Ministry. The highest permitted concentration of harmful substances in the air of residential areas is 0.1 mg m –3 trichlorphon. The highest permitted concentration (mg L –1 ) in surface waters is 0.25 for malathion, 0.02 for BHC, 0.05 for γ-BHC, 0.003 for parathion, and 0.08 for dimethoate. Air quality standards (mg m –3 ) for harmful substances in the workplace are presented in Table 9.2. © 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts 228 Zhong Chuangguang et al. EXECUTION OF PESTICIDE MANAGEMENT IN CHINA Pre-registration management According to the ‘Pesticide Management Regulation’, if a pesticide has not been registered in China, it cannot be produced and used. Also imported pesticides will not be allowed to be produced and used in China without registration, even if registered in other countries. Pesticide registration takes place in three to four stages, moving from field trial registration (1), to temporary registration (2), then regular registration (3), and additional registration (4), if required. Stages (1), (2), and (3) are successive steps for pesticide product registration. Field trial registration is designed for field-plot testing before temporary registration and this license is valid for three years. Temporary registration occurs when the field-test plots reach 1 ha or total >3 ha or when the pesticide is to enter trial sales or be used for special circumstances (emergency use). Temporary registration licenses are valid for one to two years. Regular or variety registration is required before a pesticide enters Table 9.1 Maximum permitted residue levels (MRLs) of BHC and DDT in food from GBn53-77 Food Maximum BHC a residue level Maximum DDT b residue level (mg kg –1 ) (mg kg –1 ) Grains 0.3 0.2 Fruits and vegetables 0.2 0.1 Fats and meats (based on fw) 0.5 0.5 Pure fat from meat 4.0 2.0 Fish 2.0 1.0 Egg (without shell) 1.0 1.0 Egg products Converted as egg Milk 0.1 0.1 Milk products Converted as milk Notes: a BHC residues calculated as ∑ of α, β, γ, δ isomers. b DDT residue levels calculated as the ∑ of p,p ´-DDT, o,p ´-DDT, p,p ´-DDD and p,p ´-DDE. Table 9.2 China’s air quality standards (mg m –3 ) for harmful substances in the workplace Pesticide Standard (mg m –3 ) Pesticide Standard (mg m –3 ) BHC 0.10 γ-BHC 0.05 Phorate 0.01 Malathion 2.00 Dimethoate 1.00 Trichlorfon 1.00 DDT 0.30 Parathion 0.05 Dichlorvos 0.30 Methyl-parathion 0.10 © 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts Pesticides in the People’s Republic of China 229 commercial use and this licence lasts for five years. Supplemental or additional registration may be required if the formulation changes or the application range (target pest species, use rate, or other significant change) alters and this occurs after regular registration. The new license is also valid for five years. As for regular product registration, information about product toxicity, environmental ecology, residue levels, and product efficacy (residue and efficacy data must be based on tests conducted in China) must be submitted for the judgment of the Pesticide Registration and Evaluation Committee. Post-registration management The management of pesticide labeling is accomplished by requiring producers to provide a sample copy of the label for a pesticide when applying for registration. The sample label must be ratified by ICAMA and no changes are allowed after approval. Label content must include the name of the pesticide, its chemical specifications, registration number, product license, net weight, the name of the manufacturer, pesticide classification, application directions, the toxicity mark, points for attention by applicators, data on production, and batch number. Pesticide advertisement management is based on the ‘Advertisement Manage- ment Rules’. Advertisement content must be checked in by the Agricultural Administrative Department. If the pesticide product has not received registration approval, it is not allowed to be advertised. The content of advertisements must not contain information that is inconsistent or contrary with what is in the announce- ment of pesticide registration and the registration certificate. Deception in advertising or hiding the truth from consumers is not allowed. China currently has two national centers for pesticide quality supervision and monitoring. One is in ICAMA and the other is in the Shenyang Chemical Research Institute. Each year the National Technique Supervision Bureau audits the pesticide monitoring program and publishes its results. In most provinces, cities, and autonomous regions, branch units for pesticide monitoring have been set up. Local regulations for pesticide management have been implemented in some cities, e.g. Guangzhou and Shanghai. Through 1995, 1,489 domestic pesticide products and more than 170 foreign products were officially registered (including additional registrations), and 1,631 domestic pesticide products and 130 foreign products had received temporary registration. China’s Agriculture Vice Minister recently announced plans to progressively ban the production of five OP pesticides beginning in 2001 (Anonymous, 2000). The first step will be to disallow production by new companies followed by reduction in the production levels by current manufacturers. © 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts [...]... Diphacinone Gliftor Kasugamycin Blasticidin-S 196 6 196 6 196 6 196 6 196 6 196 6 196 6 196 6 196 6 196 6 196 6 196 7 196 8 196 8 196 9 196 9 196 9 196 9 196 9 196 9 196 9 197 0 197 0 197 0 197 0 197 0 197 0 Tsumacide Alar, daminozide Phenazine Phoxim TCE-S Macbal Monocrotophos Chlormequat BPMC Ofunack Carboxin Cartap Ethyl-chlordimeform Dicofol HCB Omethoate CPMC Hydroprene Mebenil Shachonsuan Parathion Dimelon Fosetyl-Al, Aliette... Fosetyl-Al, Aliette Isoprocarb MO-338 Povamyein M Jianganmycin 197 3 197 4 197 4 197 4 197 4 197 5 197 5 197 5 197 6 197 6 197 6 197 6 197 6 197 6 197 6 197 6 197 7 197 7 197 7 197 7 197 7 197 7 197 9 197 9 197 9 197 9 197 9 © 2003 Milton D Taylor, Stephen J Klaine, Fernando P Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts Zhong Chuangguang et al Pesticide Commercial production (Y) Pesticide Commercial production (Y) Pesticide Commercial production... Propanil 194 5 195 0? 195 0s 195 1 195 5 195 5 195 6 195 7 195 8 195 8 195 8 195 8 195 8 195 9 195 9 195 9 195 9 196 0 196 1 196 3 196 3 196 3 196 3 196 4 196 4 196 4 196 4 Carbaryl Coumaphos CCC Gesatop, simazine Menazon Phaltan, folpet Phosmet Phosphamidon Phostoxin Sulphenone Carbetamide Fenchlorphos Fussol Prometryn Barbane Chlorodencone Diazoben, fenaminosulf Phenthoate Phenthoate-ethyl PSP Kitazin EBP Atrazine Dibromo-chloropropane... Heptachlor Maneb Parate zineb Sulfotep Swep 196 4 196 4 196 5 196 5 196 5 196 5 196 5 196 5 196 5 Ethachlor Di-allate Hinosan (edifenphos) Propachlor E-701 Fenthion Chlordimeform D-204 Acephate 197 0 197 0 197 1 197 1 197 2 197 2 197 2 197 2 197 3 Azinphos ethyl N-23 Tetramethrin Fenvalerate Permethrin Trifluralin Difenzoquat Ziram+Thiram+ Urbazid Diallate after 197 9 198 0 198 0 after 198 0 after 198 0 after 198 0 not known not... 2.7 0.32–4.16 1.45 17. 79 51.71 33.46 4 .98 –20.27 11.15 4.13–83.84 17.88 2.13–24.65 11.07 199 9 199 4 95 Dry season 199 5 Rainy season © 2003 Milton D Taylor, Stephen J Klaine, Fernando P Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts Reference Zhang et al., 199 6 Chen et al., 198 6 Hu et al., 199 6 Wu et al., 199 9 Xu et al., 2000 Richardson and Zheng, 199 9 Hong et al., 199 5 Hong et al., 199 9 Zhou et al., 2000 Zheng... 199 8 199 7 98 4.1–6.1 8.7– 69. 0 6 .9 13.1 – – 0.1–0.2 0.7–2.4 9. 5–11.5 0.21–4.5 0.27–14.8 5.2 26 10 0.1 1.3 0.2 1.3 10.5 – 5.06 0. 29 0. 69 3.7–13.0 4.2 9. 4 – – 0.4–0.7 1–5 7.8–10.8 0.25–1.41 0.1–16.7 0. 49 9.1 6.8 0.7 2 .9 0.6 3 9. 3 – 5.02 199 3 199 2 199 6 97 199 8 – 4.45–311.0 1.38–30.3 1.36–8 .99 NDb–0.06 3.4–14.2c 42.8 12.46 2.84 0.04 8.29c 0.14–1.12 < 0.1–2.3 0.28–1.23 ND–0.14 9. 7–28.5 0.45 1.27 0.68 0. 09. .. Deltamethrin Fenpropathrin Cypermethrin Permethrin Jiamijuzhi (methrothrin) 199 1 199 2 199 3 199 4 420 484 358 533 – – 5 35 8 49 116 146 32 30 25 40 19 4 29 31 13 6 25 47 effectively apply pesticides Research on the behavior of pesticides in the environment began in the early 198 0s Insecticides OC pesticides – Many studies have focused on the behavior of OC pesticides especially BHC and DDT in agricultural... available in Hong Kong markets during 199 3 through 199 5, Wong and Lee ( 199 7) found 16.7 percent contained residues exceeding the MRLs DDE and HCH isomer levels were substantially higher than those found in a 198 4 to 198 7 survey – dairy production had shifted to mainland sources during the interim The situation with regard to pesticide residues in and on food products does not appear to have improved The increased... Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts 238 Table 9. 3 The quantities and types of pesticides produced in China for the period 199 3 to mid- 199 5 (× 107 T) Single ingredient formulations Year Type Ia 199 3 Technical Formulated 94 184 Hc Plant regulators 58 93 39 54 12 18 Technical Formulated 103 208 60 101 41 60 Through June Technical 103 199 5 Formulated 216 60 104 42 63 199 4 Fb Binary formulations Fb Hc 91 35 13 13... or more pesticides) This mix of products, formulations, and production levels almost satisfied the requests of agriculture in China Table 9. 3 lists the quantities and types of pesticides produced from 199 3 through mid- 199 5 China’s most outstanding achievement has come in the production of pyrethroids Research into pyrethroids began in 197 2, with commercial production beginning in the 198 0s In less . 199 3 through mid- 199 5. China’s most outstanding achievement has come in the production of pyre- throids. Research into pyrethroids began in 197 2, with commercial production beginning in the 198 0s Jiamijuzhi methrin pathrin methrin (methrothrin) 199 1 420 – 8 32 19 13 199 2 484 – 49 30 4 6 199 3 358 5 116 25 29 25 199 4 533 35 146 40 31 47 © 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho,. August 199 1 and implemented 1 June 199 2. Hygiene standard for drinking water, GB574 9- 8 5, issued by the Public Health Ministry 16 August 198 5 and implemented 1 October 198 6. The peak concen- tration