Chapter 23 Spatial multimedia representations to support community participation Michael J Shiffer 23.1 INTRODUCTION One of the criticisms levelled against GIS and similar spatial information systems (as they relate to public participation), is their relative inaccessibility and the lack of capacity to incorporate informal mental models, such as personal anecdotes and observations This chapter explores some potential roles that complementary technologies to GIS can play in facilitating public participation in planning contexts The complementary technologies, which afford the capacity to link images, text and sound to maps will be referred to in a general sense as spatial multimedia Three perceived impediments to participation comprise: (1) the inability to physically attend meetings; (2) being unable to understand others; and (3) struggling to have competing views understood by others For each of these, various implementations of spatial multimedia are described that begin to overcome each impediment, thus achieving an enhanced degree of public participation in a specific context Finally, several areas where additional research is needed will be identified 23.2 IMPEDIMENTS TO PUBLIC PARTICIPATION There are many political, organizational and institutional impediments to public participation in planning contexts These have been explored extensively throughout the planning literature (cf Forester 1989; Innes 1996; Day 1997; Tett and Wolfe 1991) This chapter focuses on the tangible impediments to public participation, and how IT can address those This chapter does not suggest that IT can be an easy cure to participation challenges Rather, it is proposed as a potential catalyst towards a more inclusive process © 2002 Taylor & Francis 310 23.3 M J Shiffer IMPEDIMENT: JUST GETTING THERE The results of GIS analyses are often conveyed to the public in the context of meetings Yet one of the more significant impediments to public participation in planning is simply being physically able to attend meetings This can be particularly challenging for the elderly and physically challenged, especially in climates with diverse weather patterns Furthermore, being at meetings can be a significant challenge to ‘two-income’ families or families with small children, where a willingness to attend such a meeting can often be superseded by simple practicality Finally, there may be a degree of ambiguity surrounding how relevant the agenda of a particular meeting may be to a specific individual All of this tends to lead to lessened public participation on routine matters, and perhaps even an unintentional lack of participation on matters of particular relevance 23.3.1 How IT can help: virtual presence In recent years, IT in the United States has matured to a point where it can be employed to bridge the physical gap between planning meetings and those who wish to attend them A category of technologies can support a degree of virtual presence at a meeting – thereby complementing the data handling and mapping capability of GIS The most relevant technologies include cable TV access, video teleconferencing, and WWW access GIS can play an active role in all of these forms of virtual presence due to the capacity of the technologies to effectively transmit live displays from GIS applications Hence, the user can often have the option of transmitting a realtime image of a human, a place, or a map 23.3.1.1 Public access cable television channels Cable TV has been popular in the United States since the 1970s A key element involved in the granting of many local cable franchises is the required provision of a public affairs channel which enables broadcast of city or town council meeting and planning Often these meetings involve a one-way interaction between the meeting and the viewer This level of participation is relatively easy to attain, for many US households have cable TV access, and it’s easy to use, as it simply involves switching on a TV and watching Although most immediate interaction is one-way (from the meeting participants to the viewer), and traditional feedback mechanisms (such as letter writing and telephone calls) may be employed, some of the more forward-thinking municipalities may actually provide a mechanism for immediate viewer feedback by taking phone calls during the meeting These situations, however, are rare A less-formalized mechanism for public participation that also involves cable television access and viewer participation, can be found within the © 2002 Taylor & Francis Spatial multimedia representations 311 public access model of local cable TV franchises in the United States For example, several years ago, Cambridge (Massachusetts) Community Television developed an ‘electronic soapbox’ known as ‘BeLive’ BeLive consists of a desk with a phone and two chairs Any citizen wishing to broadcast on the local cable television channel simply sits at the desk, flicks a switch to turn on the camera, and instantly he or she is broadcasting to the local community The citizen may announce the number of the phone at the desk and broadcast conversations with viewers Although BeLive is a relatively ‘lowtech’ approach to public involvement, it demonstrates how an innovative use can be made of existing technologies Both the BeLive and the traditional model of cable TV access have the capacity to convey limited spatial information This information can be made available through simple mapping tools or software that provides rapid access to a set of maps (such as Adobe Acrobat or Microsoft Powerpoint) Nevertheless, when using this mode of transmission, special attention must be paid to the fact that TV is an exceptionally low-resolution medium This is further complicated by the fact that the NTSC video broadcast standard in North America scans every other line of a video signal in an alternating manner that leads to a ‘flicker’ of thin horizontal lines Finally, the use of bright colours can be problematic for broadcast signals All of this adds up to the fact that it can be useful to learn the following simple tactics from television news organizations about the broadcast of maps: (1) display maps at a scale suitable for simple and clear reading; (2) use muted colours whenever possible (i.e maroon rather than red, mustard rather than yellow); (3) Draw lines thickly to avoid flicker; (4) remember that people viewing these maps will have very limited time to see them, so keep them simple For example, if necessary use a slow succession of simple maps rather than a single map to convey multiple attributes 23.3.1.2 Video conferencing Another relevant form of IT with the capacity to enable ‘virtual presence’ is video conferencing This technology has matured and is extensively used by private industry, where collaboration most often takes place over great distances Video conferencing has only rarely been used to facilitate public involvement in local affairs, however, due to its relatively high cost (for both infrastructure and connection) It is more typically used by the private sector where elimination of travel over great distances is economically feasible Access to the technology in the United States has changed significantly in recent years, due to the fact that many service bureaus (such as Kinko’s Copy Shop) have installed video conferencing stations and charge a small fee for access to these facilities However, use of this technology is dominated by the private sector, where activities such as remote interviews of job candidates might make economic sense © 2002 Taylor & Francis 312 M J Shiffer However, video conferencing can be relevant to public participation in local government where it may be necessary to draw upon remote expertise to solve a local problem In this context, cities have the capacity to meet remotely with consultants for progress reports on projects ranging from real estate development to transit improvements When using video conferencing to convey spatial information, one needs to be cognizant of the same technical limitations as described above for cable TV access (regarding thickness of lines, use of colour, etc.) One exception to this is that since video conferencing is a two-way conversation, maps can be redisplayed for longer duration at the request of the other party, and it may be possible to use more complex maps in these situations Cable TV and video conferencing may indeed bridge the gap of space; however, participation using these technologies still requires that all participants be involved at the same time 23.3.1.3 ‘Getting There’ through the Internet The development of the Internet and the WWW is really a centerpiece addressing the physical inaccessibility of spatial information systems Data and information are no longer tied to a discrete set of machines in a single location such as a planning office Instead, Internet-based GIS makes it possible to access this data from virtually any suitable machine in the world provided that it has an effective network connection ‘Suitable machines’ can range from desktop units to hand-held devices used in the field By virtue of the WWW’s global system of associative document links, as well as the Internet’s capacity to support remote conferencing (or less formal ‘threaded’ conversations via discussion groups and mailing lists), this technology has profound implications for enhancing public participation by bridging the barriers of space and time The Internet enables interactive conversations among multiple stakeholders Furthermore, the WWW affords multiple channels of access to a variety of media in the form of linked maps, images, and documents In this context, however, the concern is the capacity of the Internet to facilitate virtual presence Access to the Internet has been growing rapidly in the last few years This is attributable to the many thousands of households that gain access to the Internet each day through their personal computer and either a telephone line or a cable TV connection Furthermore, wireless access to the Internet, though still in its infancy, is rapidly growing However, for those concerned about equitable access to public participation in local affairs, the Internet can be viewed as a barrier between those who are affluent enough to afford access from the home computers and those who can’t Fortunately, there has been movement in both the private and public sectors to address this issue On the private side, several Internet providers have initiated programmes where they will give away personal computers to people who subscribe This, however, is probably small consolation to those who are concerned © 2002 Taylor & Francis Spatial multimedia representations 313 with equity issues, since this model still requires a sustained outlay of cash to support Internet access Some programmes require no cash and are instead fully supported through funds from online advertisements; however, these can be difficult to become involved with, due to high demand for these services Another private sector model is ‘pay-as-you-go’ Internet access This was initially popularized by so-called ‘cyber-cafés’, but has recently found its way to such routine places as the local McDonald’s Here one finds a kiosk-like machine that accepts cash (in this case, $1 for 20 minutes) for Internet browser time Nevertheless, the use of a McDonald’s Internet kiosk to access local-government-related information has yet to be observed! In the public sector, access to the Internet, and by implication to local government information, has been made available through libraries and other public buildings where clusters of computer terminals can often be found These are supplemented by a significant number of community computer centres that have arisen in various low-income neighbourhoods Finally, physical inaccessibility to spatial information systems can be addressed in a very ‘low-tech’ way by simply bringing a laptop computer, projector and an information specialist to a planning meeting 23.4 IMPEDIMENT: UNDERSTANDING OTHERS For many years, planning professionals have been challenged to describe technical information to non-technical audiences Where abstractions have been used to convey concepts such as noise and traffic levels, more descriptive indicators have been somewhat elusive Furthermore, it is often challenging for meeting participants to effectively describe a former, current or proposed physical environment to those who may be unfamiliar with the area or the time frame in question Representational aids provide an implementation of IT that can support the gap of understanding that often exists between the speaker and the audience Representational aids are designed to make the abstract more concrete by employing a richer set of descriptions They have evolved from gestural and verbal tactics such as waving of hands and copious use of adjectives, to artistic conceptualizations and the employment of linked media The intent has been to close ‘the gap of understanding’ between technical specialists and key stakeholders This has most recently been accomplished through the augmentation of typically abstract environmental representations with direct manipulation interfaces and multimedia representational aids, which have been made available in planning settings through increases in computing power over the last decade (cf Câmara et al 1991; Shiffer 1995 and many other works on this subject) For instance, as one observes public participation contexts, a gap often becomes evident between what is being conveyed by a specialist at the head © 2002 Taylor & Francis 314 M J Shiffer of a room and what the public understands This gap can lead to misunderstandings, arguments and ultimately mistrust A noise specialist may display a map of noise contours and describe to the public how each contour line represents a noise level Furthermore, the specialist may describe this noise level as an aggregation of peak noise events, perhaps even going so far as to provide a quantitative representation of Ldn (frequently characterized as noise level averaged over time with night time events weighted more than day) Although talented and well-meaning professionals have the capacity to effectively convey these concepts to an attentive public, often times this may not be the case Thus, it is important to employ some sort of representational aid to bridge the gap between what the specialist intends to convey and what the public can effectively understand Such an aid might be as simple as a spreadsheet calculation that conveys concepts such as annoyance (Schultz 1978) or relative impacts on property values (Frankel 1981) More complex representational aids might actually augment traditional noise contour representations with digitally sampled recordings of actual discrete noise events (Shiffer 1995) The combination of such representational aids is illustrated in Figure 23.1 Other representational aids might animate the peak noise level of a vehicle (such as a motorcycle) as it moves through an environment (Figure 23.2) (Ferrand 1999) Figure 23.1 Aircraft noise representations for Rantoul, IL c 1991 © 2002 Taylor & Francis Spatial multimedia representations 315 Figure 23.2 A sequence of vehicular noise representation with a peak of approximately 85 dbA Taken from an animation of a motorcycle on Newport Ave., Quincy, MA The intended result of representational aids is to make analytic tools and their outputs more manipulable, understandable, and appealing, so that information that would normally be inaccessible to the layperson can be comprehended more effectively Nevertheless, just as this technology has the capacity to deliver compelling and descriptive representations, it can deliver compelling and descriptive misrepresentations While this issue is not new to spatial analysis, it can be exacerbated through the use of multiple representations in collaborative contexts; therefore it is important to understand the potential pitfalls of unintentional misrepresentation so that measures can be taken to minimize it A good place to start is with the works of Monmonier (1991), and Tufte (1983; 1990; 1997) 23.5 IMPEDIMENT: BEING HEARD Spatial annotation tools allow users of an information system to relate their comments to a geographic (or spatial) area These have essentially been with us since ancient times when humans would draw in sand to illustrate spatial relationships while telling stories Annotation tools can be as simple as pens, pins or other devices that might be used to mark up a shared map or diagram In fact, 3M’s Post-It Note® is probably one of the most significant and accessible spatial annotation technologies to be developed in recent times Electronic annotation is made possible by the interoperable characteristics of contemporary software that allows the linking of various computer files across applications either on a single machine or through a network For instance, one now has the ability to draw a polygon on a map and then link that polygon to a web page or other type of multimedia file with a broad variety of information pertaining to that location This can be accomplished using either a GIS, a WWW-based map, or using a ‘portable’ document that supports multimedia linking.1 © 2002 Taylor & Francis 316 M J Shiffer These tools give us the capacity to link ideas and comments to simple marks that we make on shared electronic maps either before, during, or after a meeting This technology goes further by allowing us to link external resources, such as text, sound or imagery that may be either centrally located or distributed across a network to maps Efforts at crime prevention can provide an example of this kind of information capture where, for instance, neighbourhood crime statistics can be overlayed on top of individual perceptions of the relative level of safety of a given area Planners can take advantage of various types of digital annotation For instance, at the simplest level, such annotations might be basic graphical marks (such as lines, circles, dots, etc.) that are intended to convey spatial flow, physical alterations or a multitude of related concepts Such graphical marks would likely be tied to a variety of more descriptive annotations The remainder of this section will describe three types of annotation (text, audio, and video) along with some of the benefits and drawbacks associated with each Spatially linked textual annotation typically takes the form of an ‘Internet-like’ discussion thread that is linked to a location on a map shared over a network In essence, a user could click on a map location to access a discussion thread that relates to that spatial area As opposed to the other forms of annotation described below, textual annotation offers the benefits of exceptionally low storage overhead (and subsequently low demands on network resources) Furthermore, its levels of descriptiveness are limited only by the prosaic talents of the contributors Audio annotation allows one to link verbal comments to a location on a map This is accomplished by speaking into a microphone that is linked to a computer-based digitizer This can theoretically work more rapidly than other forms of annotation However, early experiences have demonstrated a reluctance to annotate a map with one’s voice due to the awkwardness of stopping a meeting and concern about how one’s comments might be viewed out of context We also have the capacity to link video images of contributors to maps in a manner similar to audio annotation Such a system might be employed as part of a kiosk installation in a public place where voluntary comments could be solicited from the public using an embedded camera This has the effect of enabling one to view ‘the face behind the name’ On the positive side, this can lead, convey, expressive and compelling opinions about various proposals On the negative side, such images can lead to eliciting unintended bias on the part of the viewer (who can, for instance, make judgements based on appearance) Furthermore, video annotation requires significant storage overhead and can be exceptionally difficult to convey through as network using existing technologies This last concern is being addressed with continual advances in compression technologies and network bandwidth © 2002 Taylor & Francis Spatial multimedia representations 317 The archive that results from multiple annotations can assist with recollection during subsequent meetings Access to this archive can be based on geographic relevance, chronological relevance and associative relevance Geographic relevance allows users of an information system to search for annotations that are related to a specific region or subregion using typical GIS spatial selection operations Chronological relevance allows a user to add the capacity to search for annotations made before, after or between two dates Finally, associative relevance allows searching by keywords or related concepts that could be linked together in a WWW-like associative structure While it is certainly conceivable that GIS-based archival mechanisms can be set up to aid future recollective efforts, this requires that a substantial spatial data infrastructure be already in place As we are only beginning to realize the development of substantial spatial data infrastructures around the world, we will need to continue to rely on the (frequently chapter-based) libraries of local historical societies for more specific spatial descriptions that can effectively convey the character of a local area Even in this case, the issue becomes a question of what material is worth maintaining, which has profound implications for the scalability of such a system For instance, is it reasonable to expect a planning council to archive a spatial representation of every proposal made along with the corresponding minutes of every planning meeting? If so, what is a reasonable time frame for keeping the record in the archive? Five years? Fifty Years? Forever? If not every proposal is archived, then how is the choice of ‘what is relevant’ made? These questions aside, such annotations have the capacity to significantly enhance recollection by providing a means of encoding informal memories of a location 23.6 CONCLUSION Through the use of the complementary technologies and implementation approaches described above, PPGIS can empower groups and individuals who have traditionally been informationally disadvantaged due to a lack of both cognitive and physical access to traditional spatial analysis tools Exactly who benefits from such empowerment will depend on the situations in which the PPGIS is implemented Representational aids will not completely replace quantitative measures of environmental phenomena Rather they will serve to supplement such measures through multiple representations While it is possible that easier access to tools and information can offer easier access to their misuse, initial observations have demonstrated that ease of access can also promote experimentation and exploration Such experimentation and exploration may result in the identification of related issues to a particular problem, or the generation of new alternative approaches to a problem or issue © 2002 Taylor & Francis 318 M J Shiffer While one might argue that these technologies can lead to better-informed conversations, their use can also make it difficult (or impossible) for a group to reach consensus Furthermore, while the use of annotations and representational aids have the capacity to minimize arguments based on misunderstanding, they can also confuse or mislead Therefore, careful attention needs to be paid to strategies for the implementation of these tools in an institutional context NOTE This last form of map delivery is made possible using software packages such as Acrobat from Adobe Systems Acrobat is built on the capacity to deliver documents in a ‘Portable Document Format’ (PDF) This has tremendous implications for the delivery of maps due to a number of factors First, this file format has a capacity to effectively scale vector and raster graphics Second, the free distribution of a software plug-in that opens these files in WWW browsers and extensive use of this file format for private sector document distribution make this software relatively ubiqitious Finally, the capacity to link multiple media (such as WWW pages, images, and sound) to locations on maps displayed in this format make it an exceptionally useful file format for capturing annotations to maps Furthermore, the conversion of GIS maps to PDF files is a simple matter of selecting a ‘virtual printer’ that is bundled with Acrobat software REFERENCES Câmara, A., Gomes, A L., Fonseca, A and Lucena e Vale, M J (1991) ‘Hypersnige – a navigation system for geographic information’, Proceedings of the European GIS Conference, Brussels, Belgium, April, pp 175–179 Day (1997) ‘Citizen participation in the planning process: an essentially contested process?’ Journal of Planning Literature 11(3): 424–434 Ferrand, N (1999) ‘Emerging visualization technologies to support public participation in an urban mass transit planning context’ (unpublished MIT master’s of city planning thesis) Forester, J (1989) Planning in the face of power, Berkeley: University of California Press Frankel, M (1998) ‘The impact of aircraft noise on residential property markets’, Illinois Business Review 45(5): 8–13 Innes, J (1996) ‘Information in Communicative Planning’, Number 679 in Working Chapters, University of California Berkeley, Institute of Urban and Regional Development, HT390.C153 Monmonier, M (1991) How to Lie with Maps, Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press Schultz, T J (1978) ‘Synthesis of social surveys on noise annoyance’, Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 64: 377–405 Shiffer, M J (1995) ‘Environmental review with hypermedia systems’, Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design 22: 359–372 © 2002 Taylor & Francis Spatial multimedia representations 319 Tett, A and Wolfe, J (1991) ‘Discourse analysis and city plans’, Journal of Planning Education and Research 10: 195–199 Tufte, E R (1983) The Visual Display of Quantitative Information, Cheshire, Conn.: Graphics Press Tufte, E R (1990) Envisioning Information, Cheshire, Conn.: Graphics Press Tufte, E R (1997) Visual Explanations: Images and Quantities, Evidence and Narrative, Cheshire, Conn.: Graphics Press © 2002 Taylor & Francis ... ‘pay-as-you-go’ Internet access This was initially popularized by so-called ‘cyber-cafés’, but has recently found its way to such routine places as the local McDonald’s Here one finds a kiosk-like... low-income neighbourhoods Finally, physical inaccessibility to spatial information systems can be addressed in a very ‘low-tech’ way by simply bringing a laptop computer, projector and an information. .. Internet kiosk to access local-government-related information has yet to be observed! In the public sector, access to the Internet, and by implication to local government information, has been made