CHAPTER 10 Environmental Problems Katherine L. Thalman CONTENTS Section 10A Pollution Sources and Pathways . . . . 10-2 Section 10B Surface Water Pollution . . . 10-7 Section 10C Groundwater Contamination . . . . . . 10-121 Section 10D Solid Waste. . . . 10-160 Section 10E Agricultural Activities 10-179 Section 10F Urban Runoff/Deicing Materials. . . . 10-277 Section 10G Air Emissions/Acid Rain/Sea Level Rise . 10-280 Section 10H Offshore Waste Disposal . . 10-309 Section 10I Energy Development . 10-312 Section 10J Waterborne Diseases/Health Hazards 10-316 10-1 q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC SECTION 10A POLLUTION SOURCES AND PATHWAYS Dry soil Water Water Moisture Moisture Moisture Atmosphere (particles) Atmosphere (vapor) Filter/ bottom feeder Groundwater Water Water Fish Foliage Animal Man Plant crop Root crop Hydro soil Figure 10A.1 Pollutant pathways from soil to man. (From Dacre, I.C., Rosenblatt, D.H., and Cogley, D.R., 1980, Preliminary Pollutant Limit Values for Human Health Effects, Environmental Technology 14: 778–783, Copyright American Chemical Society, Washington, DC.) Climate change Pathogens Pesticides Algal toxins Acidification Global trends Genetically modified organisms Nutrients Municipal wastewater Industrial discharges Persisent organic pollutants Endocrine disrupting substances Landfills and Waste Disposal Natural sources Urban runoff Agricultural/Forestry land use SOURCES CONTAMINANTS WATER QUANTITY IMPACTS Figure 10A.2 Threats to water sources. (From Threats to Sources of Drinking Water and Aquatic Ecosystem Health in Canada, page x, Environment Canada, 2001. Reproduced with permission from the National Water Research Institute, Environment Canada, 2006.) THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES10-2 q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Table 10A.1 Causes of Damage to the Quality of Water Resources Types of Waste Wastewater Sources Water-Quality Measures Effects on Water Quality Effects on Aquatic Life Effects on Recreation Disease-carrying agents — human feces, warm- blooded animal feces Municipal discharges, watercraft discharges, urban runoff, agricultural runoff, feedlot wastes, combined sewer overflows, industrial discharges Fecal coliform, fecal streptococcus, other microbes Health hazard for human consumption and contact Inedibility of shellfish for humans Reduced contact recreation Oxygen-demanding wastes — high concentrations of biodegradable organic matter Municipal discharges, industrial discharges, combined sewer overflows, watercraft discharges, urban runoff, agricultural runoff, feedlot wastes, natural sources Biochemical oxygen demand, dissolved oxygen, volatile solids sulfides Deoxygenation, potential for septic conditions Fish kills If severe, eliminated recreation Suspended organic and inorganic material Mining discharges, municipal discharges, industrial discharges, construction runoff, agricultural runoff, urban runoff, silvicultural runoff, natural sources, combined sewer overflows Suspended solids, turbidity, biochemical oxygen demand, sulfides Reduced light penetration, deposition on bottom, benthic deoxygenation Reduced photosynthesis, changed bottom organism population, reduced fish production, reduced sport fish population, increased nonsport fish population Reduced game fishing, aesthetic appreciation Inorganic materials, mineral substances — metal, salts, acids, solid matter, other chemicals, oil Mining discharges, acid mine drainage, industrial discharges, municipal discharges, combined sewer overflows, urban runoff, oil fields, agricultural runoff, irrigation return flow, natural sources, cooling tower blowdown, transportation spills, coal gasification pH, acidity, alkalinity, dissolved solids, chlorides, sulfates, sodium, specific metals, toxicity bioassay, visual (oil spills) Acidity, salination, toxicity of heavy metals, floating oils Reduced biological productivity, reduced flow, fish kills, reduced production, tainted fish Reduced recreational use, fishing, aesthetic appreciation Synthetic organic chemicals — dissolved organic material, e.g., detergents, household aids, pesticides Industrial discharges, urban runoff, municipal discharges, combined sewer overflow, agricultural runoff, silvicultural runoff, transportation spills, mining discharges Cyanides, phenols, toxicity bioassay Toxicity of natural organics, biodegradable or persistent synthetic organics Fish kills, tainted fish, reduced reproduction, skeletal development Reduced fishing, inedible fish for humans Nutrients — nitrogen, phosphorus Municipal discharges, agricultural runoff, combined sewer overflows, industrial discharges, urban runoff, natural sources Nitrogen, phosphorus Increased algal growth, dissolved oxygen reduction Increased production, reduced sport fish population, increased nonsport fish population Tainted drinking water, reduced fishing and aesthetic appreciation Radioactive materials Industrial discharges, mining Radioactivity Increased radioactivity Altered natural rate of genetic mutation Reduced opportunities Heat Cooling water discharges, industrial discharges, municipal discharges, cooling tower blowdown Temperature Increased temperature, reduced capacity to absorb oxygen Fish kills, altered species composition Possible increased sport fishing by extended season for fish, which might otherwise migrate Source: From Council of Environmental Quality, 1981, Environmental Trends. ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS 10-3 q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Table 10A.2 Point- and Nonpoint Sources of Water Pollution Sources Common Pollutant Categories POINT SOURCES Municipal sewage treatment plants BOD; bacteria; nutrients; ammonia; toxics Industrial facilities Toxics; BOD Combined sewer overflows BOD; bacteria; nutrients; turbidity; total dissolved solids; ammonia; toxics; bacteria NONPOINT SOURCES Agricultural runoff Nutrients; turbidity; total dissolved solids; toxics; bacteria Urban runoff Turbidity; bacteria; nutrients; total dissolved solids; toxics Construction runoff Turbidity; nutrients; toxics Mining runoff Turbidity; acids; toxics; total dissolved solids Septic systems Bacteria; nutrients Landfills/spills Toxics; miscellaneous substances Silvicultural runoff Nutrients; turbidity; toxics Source: From U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Water Quality Inventory, 1986 Report to Congress. THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES10-4 q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Table 10A.3 Classes of Nonpoint Source Pollution a BOD, Biological Oxygen Demand. b PAH, Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons. c PCB, Polycyclic Chlorinated Bi-Phenyls. d COD, Chemical Oxygen Demand. Source: From Ongley, E.D., 1996, Control of water pollution from agriculture-FAO irrigation and drainage paper 55, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. Reprinted with permission. ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS 10-5 q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Table 10A.4 Contamination Sources Reported by Public Water-Supply Systems in the United States Water-Supply Source Type of Contamination Groundwater River/Stream Lake/Reservoir Industrial/commercial discharges 62 97 38 Leaking underground tanks 81 33 23 Urban runoff 35 91 24 Landfills 67 49 22 Synthetic or volatile organics 83 56 18 Hazardous waste site(s) 37 31 8 Land development 36 76 32 Underground waste injection 27 5 3 Agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers, etc.) 49 126 86 Algae/bacteria 15 117 124 Overdraft 40 7 4 Water rights disputes 16 22 12 Natural contamination (radionuclides, salinity, etc.) 52 56 35 Note: Number of utilities reporting in each category. Source: From American Water Works Association, 1984 Water Utility Operating Data; Copyright AWWA. Table 10A.5 Anthropogenic Sources of Pollutants in the Aquatic Environment Source Bacteria Nutrients Trace Elements Pesticides/ Herbicides Industrial Organic Micro Pollutants Oils and Greases Atmosphere x xxxG xxxG xxxG Point sources Sewage xxx xxx xxx x xxx Industrial effluents x xxxG xxxG xx Diffuse sources Agriculture xx xxx x xxxG Dredging x xxx xx xxx x Navigation and harbors xxxx x xxx Mixed sources Urban runoff and waste disposal xx xxx xxx xx xx xx Industrial waste disposal sites x xxx x xxx x Note: x, Low local significance; xx, Moderate local/regional significance; xxx, High local/regional significance; G, Globally significant. Source: From Chapman, D. (ed.), 1996, Water quality assessments-A guide to use of biota, Sediments and Water in Environmental Monitoring—Second Edition, Copyright q UNESO/WHO/UNEP, 1996, www.who.int. Reprinted with permission. THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES10-6 q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC SECTION 10B SURFACE WATER POLLUTION Percent of impaired waters by 8-digit hydrologic unit code No waters listed < 5% 5−10% 10−25% > 25% Figure 10B.3 Percentage of impaired waters in the United States by 8-digit hydrologic unit code. (From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2000, Atlas of America’s Polluted Waters, EPA-840-B-00-002, May 2000, www.epa.gov.) ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS 10-7 q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC MilesLeading pollutants/stressors Pathogens (bacteria) Siltation Habitat alterations Nutrients Thermal modifications Metals Flow alterations Oxygen-Depleting substances Percent of IMPAIRED river miles Percent of ASSESSED river miles 0 5 10 15 20 0 102030405060 93,431 84,503 58,807 55,398 52,870 44,962 41,400 25,355 Leading sources b Miles Agriculture Hydrologic modification Habitat modification Urban runoff/Storm sewers Forestry Municipal point sources Resource extraction Percent of IMPAIRED river miles Percent of ASSESSED river miles 0 0 5 10 15 20 10 20 30 40 50 128,859 53,850 37,654 34,871 28,156 27,988 27,695 Total rivers and streams 3,692,830 miles 81% Not Assessed 19% ASSESSED 61% Good ASSESSED rivers and streams 699,946 miles a 426,633 miles 269,258 miles 39% IMPAIRED Figure 10B.4 Leading pollutants and sources of river and stream impairment in the United States. a Excluding unknown and natural sources. b Includes miles assessed as not attainable. Percentages do not add up to 100% because more than one pollutant or source may impair a river segment. (From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2002, National Water Quality Inventory 2000 Report, EPA-841-R-02-001, www.epa.gov.) THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES10-8 q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 89 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0 81 74 69 66 64 60 48 45 44 37 32 29 27 24 Detection frequency (percent) Total concentration (micrograms per liter) EXPLANATION Maximum value Minimum value Steroids, nonprescription drugs, and an insects repellent were the three chemical groups most commonly detected in susceptible streams. Detergent and metabolites, steroids, and plasticizers generally were found at the highest concentrations. Median 75 th pencentile 25 th pencentile ''Maximum values not shown: Steroids: 18.3 Plasticizers: 17.4 Antibiotics: 3.6 Insecticides Antibiotics Fragrances: 4.3 Fragrances Solvant Other prescription drugs Antioxidants Hormones PAHs Detergent metabolies: 55.6 Non prescription drugs: 17.4 Nonprescription drugs Steroids Insects repellent Detergent metabolites Plasticizers Disinfects Fire retardants Figure 10B.5 Pharmaceuticals, hormones, and other organic wastewater contaminants in United States streams. (From Buxton, H.T. and Kolpin, D.W., 2002, Pharmaceuticals, Hormones, and Other Organic Wastewater Contaminants in U.S. Streams, USGS Fact Sheet FS-027-02, June 2002, www.usgs.gov.) ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS 10-9 q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Alaska Hawaii Puerto Rice Total Number of Stations: 8,348 Figure 10B.6 Sampling stations classified as tier 1 (associated adverse effects are probable). (From USEPA, 2004, The incidence and severity of sediment contamination in surface waters of the United States, National Sediment Quality Survey: Second Edition, EPA 823-R-04-007, www.epa.gov.) THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES10-10 q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC [...]... surface waters of the United States, National Sediment Quality Survey: Second Edition, EPA 823-R-0 4-0 07, www.epa.gov.) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 1 0-1 2 THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES Explanation Decreasing trend No trend Figure 10B.9 Lead trends throughout the United States using sediment core data from 1975 to top of core (From USEPA, 2004, The incidence and. .. Deposition of Air Pollutants to the Great Waters Second Report to Congress, EPA-453/R-9 7-0 11, www.epa.gov.) Original Source: Baker et al., 1996 (Chesapeake Bay) and Eisenreich and Strachen 1992 (Great Lakes) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 1 0-2 2 THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES AIR WATER Vapor Phase Total PCBs (pg/m3) SEDIMENT 2000 100 0 500 Water Column Diss TotalPCBs... add up to 100 % because more than one pollutant or source may impair a lake Figure 10B.19 Leading pollutants and sources in impaired lakes in the United States (From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2002, National Water Quality Inventory 2000 Report, EPA-841-R-0 2-0 01, www.epa.gov.) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 1 0-2 0 THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES. .. until the next report Figure 10B.14 Overall United States national coastal condition (From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2004, National Coastal Condition Report II, EPA-620/R-03/002, December 2004, www.epa.gov.) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 1 0-1 6 THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES The area and duration of hypoxia are tracked in the Gulf of Mexico and. .. of the Environment Environment Canada, National Round Table on the Environment and the Economy, 2003, Environment and Sustainable Development Indicators for Canada, Ottawa.) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 1 0-2 8 THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES 2 0 22 0 33 297 10 712 1,537 0 1* 11* *Provincewide advisories in effect in 1997 for Nova Scotia (all rivers and lakes) and. .. ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS 1 0-2 9 UK—Northern Ireland Albania Ireland Bosnia and Herzegovina Latvia Czech Rep UK—Scotland Czech Rep Slovenia Luxembourg Poland France Latvia UK—England and Wales Poland Czech Rep UK—England and Wales Romania Austria Germany UK—Northern Ireland Spain Biological Physcio-chemical Combined −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 % change per year of reporting period Figure 10B.33 Rate of change... 0.0335 Indeno (1,2,3-cd) pyrene 0.0349 Chlorpurifos Chlorfenvinphos 0.0199 0.02 0.003 0.0175 Benzo-b-fluoranthene Benzo-g,h,i-perylene Benzo-a-perylene Hexachlorobenzene (HCB) Benzo-k-fluoranthene 0.001 0.0088 0.0171 0.008 0.0123 0.007 0.0099 0.005 Mean Median 0.0091 0.0044 0.01 0.1 1 μg/L Figure 10B.37 Median and mean concentrations of the 10 most highly ranked substances in the water framework directive... Scientific and Cultural Organization, 2003, Water for People Water for Life, The United Nations World Water Development, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and Berghahn Books, www.unesco.org Reprinted with permission.) Original Source: Adapted from Environmental Agency, UK, 2002 q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 1 0-3 0 THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET. .. is the coefficient of determination It gives a measure of the strength of the correlation 0 1972 1976 1980 1984 1988 1992 1996 2000 Figure 10B.24 Bioaccumulation of PCBs and DDT in the Great Lakes (From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2003, EPA’s Draft Report on the Environment, 2003, EPA 600-R-0 3-0 50, www.epa.gov.) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 1 0-2 4 THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC. .. Group, LLC 1 0-3 4 THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES Major Issue—Greater than 33% of the draniage basin has not met phosphorus guidelines for "good" surface water quality Significant Issue—5% to 33% of the drainage basin has not met phosphorus guidelines for "good" surface water quality Not a Significant Issue—Greater than 50% of the drainage basin has monitoring coverage and less . Rain/Sea Level Rise . 1 0-2 80 Section 10H Offshore Waste Disposal . . 1 0-3 09 Section 10I Energy Development . 1 0-3 12 Section 10J Waterborne Diseases/Health Hazards 1 0-3 16 1 0-1 q 2006 by Taylor &. permission. THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES1 0-6 q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC SECTION 10B SURFACE WATER POLLUTION Percent of impaired waters by 8-digit hydrologic. National Sediment Quality Survey: Second Edition, EPA 823-R-0 4-0 07, www.epa.gov.) THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES1 0-1 0 q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CCPT WILL USNK NVBR NVBR EXPLANATION SANJ Total