© 2003 by CRC Press LLC Part Three Technological Options © 2003 by CRC Press LLC Ensuring Food Security and Environmental Stewardship in the 21st Century* S.K. De Datta Introduction Impact of the Green Revolution Role of Biotechnology International Collaboration Policy Intervention Conclusions References INTRODUCTION One of the greatest achievements of the 20th century was harnessing agricultural sciences with policy interventions to challenge hunger, poverty and food insecu - rity in the developing regions of the world. International agricultural research centers, national programs, U.S. Land Grant Universities, government entities, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and the private sector all contributed to enhanced food security in developing regions. It was obvious that this need, combined with vision, determination, commitment and resources, made it possible to tackle these challenges. The most urgent need in most developing countries was simple and focused: increased food production and the transformation of food-deficient countries into ones self-sufficient in food production. There was remarkable success with cereal production in developing countries, most notably in India. These successes were brought about by focused agricultural research and policy instruments instituted by the governments of many developing countries. As a result, cereal production stayed ahead of the population increase. These successes were tempered by the contention that some segments of the population did not quite benefit from the enhanced cereal production because of poverty and lack of purchasing capacity. A debate continued * Paper presented at the workshop Reconciling Food Security and Environmental Quality in Industrial- izing India, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. March 7–8, 2001. 15 © 2003 by CRC Press LLC as to whether the Green Revolution helped only the well-endowed farmers. The answer to that debate might be that the well-endowed farmers benefited more because of their capacity to invest in high inputs, which have been one of the ingredients for higher production. The low-income farmers did not benefit very much from the Green Revolution because of their inability to invest in the new technologies. IMPACT OF THE GREEN REVOLUTION The debate then shifted to a discussion of whether the high input technologies in the Green Revolution era might have reached a plateau in production and had the unintentional effect of challenging the environmental security of developing nations. In this debate, the issue of enhanced pesticide and inorganic nutrient use was intertwined and gave mixed signals, to the detriment of farmers’ understanding of the issues. All inputs were lumped together and branded as “high input technology.” However, there is no question that indiscriminate use of pesticides caused health and environmental problems. Similarly, pumping more water from the ground than the rechargeable capacity of the land to replenish it resulted in soil problems that included increased salinity and alkalinity (De Datta et al., 1993). The fact remains that, although we have developed rain-fed agriculture with some success, irrigated agriculture will continue to provide the most stable food production source. It is widely recognized that the yield ceiling in developing nations has plateaued, and, in some cases, the yields have declined over time, particularly in areas where cereals have been grown intensively (Evans and De Datta, 1979; Flinn et al., 1982). With increased demand worldwide to sustain growth in food production and increased food security, a concerted effort in research that will enhance the yield ceiling is urgently needed. In the case of rice in the tropics, for example, basic research using physiological parameters suggests that at least a 15% and, in an ideal situation, up to a 20% yield increase is possible by modifying plant type and cultural practices (Dingkuhn et al., 1991; Dingkuhn et al., 1992). Unfortunately, the prototype of such higher yielding rice cultivars with fewer but longer panicles has not been found agronomically acceptable because of its lack of pest resistance. In this regard, modern tools such as genetically engineered plants should provide some additional opportunities for a breakthrough in the yield ceiling. However, research on the yield ceiling is time consuming and expensive. At the same time, donor communities plagued with their domestic agendas are falling behind in supporting agricultural research. In fact, the role of agriculture in the international development agenda has been reduced significantly. New agenda items such as the environment, natural resources, poverty, democracy and governance, health, disease and population issues dominate development agendas. It appears that agriculture does not generate as much energy in the development debate as all the other issues mentioned above. The obvious synergy between child survival and food production is often not understood in the policy arena. And, food security and increased food production are intimately linked together with environmental management. In fact, many of our concerns and projections about food security have been based on a simplistic judgment calculation of calories and protein intake. The © 2003 by CRC Press LLC importance of other nutritional bases such as vitamin A, iron and zinc as essential for the physical development of children is not widely recognized, although the recent news of “golden rice” in Asia has generated worldwide attention. International Rice Research Institute scientists, in cooperation with laboratories in Europe, have joined hands with the private sector to develop rices with enhanced Vitamin A production. This public–private-sector collaboration is critical for taking on the complex research topics involved in this urgent technology gap in food security that requires new tools, resources and commitments. The recent approved revision of Title XII entitled Famine Prevention and Freedom from Hunger Improvement Act of 2000, demonstrates the U.S. congress’ support for such an approach. Its stated goals include (1) “improved human capacity and institutional resource development for the global application of agricultural and related environmental sciences,” and (2) “providing for application of agricultural sciences to solving food, health, nutri - tion, rural income, and environmental problems, especially such problems of low income, food deficit countries.” ROLE OF BIOTECHNOLOGY Now let us focus attention on the role of biotechnology and bioinformatics to address food security and environmental issues. There is a heated debate, particularly in Europe, about learning more about genetically modified organisms (GMOs) before placing food items on the supermarket shelves. This is a fine idea, and science should unfold some of the unresolved issues. Unfortunately, the discussion in the developing region of the world is on the urgency of food security; in some instances, food security is directly linked to national security. In this debate, the choice of developing countries is to use whatever tools are available in the pursuit of food and environ - mental security, including the use of biotechnology and hybrid seed programs. There is consensus that developing countries are moving forward with these new tools to speed up generating new crop varieties that are superior in production, with some specific attributes that will minimize pesticide use and environmental degradation. Detailed issues on the potential role of biotechnology in solving food problems in developing countries have been summarized by Herdt (1993). In an acceptance speech for receiving the Indira Gandhi Prize for Peace, Disarmament and Develop - ment, Dr. M.S. Swaminathan said, “while we should admire the prospects of progress and prosperity promised by the virtual world, it would be foolish to overlook the state of poverty, hunger, malnutrition and environmental degradation prevailing in the real world.” We therefore need to pursue a research agenda which will touch upon all of the issues mentioned by Dr. Swaminathan. INTERNATIONAL COLLABORATION In the pursuit of global efforts on agricultural growth, food and environmental security, and rural development (Hazell and Lutz, 1998), international collabora - tion is not a choice but a requirement, producing a shared agenda with win–win results. The USAID Global Bureau has supported Collaborative Research Support Programs (CRSPs) and other research support programs led by the United States’ © 2003 by CRC Press LLC Land Grant Universities. These and other eligible universities are engaged in research programs, institution and policy development, extension, training and other programs for global agricultural development, trade and the responsible management of natural resources. One such CRSP project is the Integrated Pest Management (IPM) managed by Virginia Tech. The IPM CRSP conducts participatory and collaborative integrated management programs to develop and implement economically and environmentally sound crop protection methods. The program strengthens global IPM capacity in both the United States and developing-country institutions. IPM CRSP research is currently under way in eight host country sites in Asia, Africa, Latin America, the Caribbean and Eastern Europe. The IPM CRSP goals are to develop improved IPM technologies and institutional changes that will reduce crop losses, increase farmer income, reduce pesticide use and residues, improve IPM research and education program capabilities, improve the ability to monitor pests and increase the involvement of women in IPM decision- making and program design. Achievement of these goals should improve environ - mental quality, reduce poverty and enhance human health across the globe. Central to IPM CRSP methodology is the use of a participatory process that includes participatory appraisals (PAs) conducted to identify local problems and the needs of farmers and other stakeholders. Research, training and information exchange activities are developed based on PAs and other information gathering and sharing. Local scientists in IPM CRSP host countries collaborate with U.S. scientists to implement interdisciplinary research, education and training. Most research is conducted on farms with farmer cooperators. Eight prime sites in developing regions of the world have been strategically selected to create a regional fold from which IPM CRSP technologies can be effectively disseminated to neighboring countries. This enables IPM CRSP to promote the development and adoption of IPM technologies in a variety of cropping systems around the world. The result is higher income, greater food security and greater food safety in collaborating countries. In Asia, for instance, vegetables in rice-based systems are the targeted crops for IPM research. Col - laborative IPM research is conducted at two sites, one in the Philippines (for southeast Asia) and the other in Bangladesh (for South Asia). But it is our expectation that results from the IPM of vegetables in rice-based systems at these two sites will benefit people across South Asia, including India and the rest of the southeast Asian countries. In Bangladesh, IPM CRSP research activities are targeted for vegetable crops because they account for about 10% of the total pesticide use — a disproportionately large share. The research agenda was developed and initiated through a PA process in August 1998 for three intensive vegetable growing areas: Gazipur (Kashimpur), Commilla (Sayedpur) and Narasingdi (Shibpur). A large number of farmers and other stakeholders participated in the PA process. Following that, a planning work - shop was held in Dhaka to identify and prioritize the research agenda. Four targeted vegetables, i.e., eggplant, cabbage, tomato, and okra and their pests were prioritized for IPM CRSP research. Each January collaborating scientists and other stakeholders in Bangladesh and the United States, the AVRDC and IRRI review the research © 2003 by CRC Press LLC progress and prepare the workplan for the following year, keeping in mind the IPM needs and problems faced by farmers. The IPM CRSP in Bangladesh has had promising initial results in farmers’ fields, including: • A number of eggplant varieties have been identified as resistant to fruit and shoot borers, bacterial wilt, root-knot nematodes and jassids. • Two eggplant varieties that are resistant to bacterial wilt are now being used for grafting with cultivated eggplants. • Tests of synthetic pheromones and locally prepared insecticide-impreg- nated, smashed-sweet-gourd traps were highly effective for attracting and suppressing the cucurbit fruit fly population. • An economic impact assessment procedure was developed for IPM CRSP research at the Asia site in Bangladesh that draws on Geographic Infor - mation Systems (GIS) and economic models. The models were tested for a soil-borne disease control strategy on eggplant and weed control in cabbage. Results from the test project reported several million dollars in net welfare gains given its projected adoption by farmers in Bangladesh over the next 30 years. This information was summarized and demon - strated in a field day organized by the IPM CRSP team in Bangladesh (IPM CRSP Bangladesh, January 2001). Details on worldwide programs for IPM CRSP are summarized in the report IPM CRSP Annual Highlights For Year 7 (1999–2000), published by the Office of International Research and Development in November 2000. POLICY INTERVENTION In the new century, we face a population growth of about 86 million persons a year, mostly in the developing regions, which will contribute significantly to environmen - tal degradation. Policy interventions are needed to mitigate these environmental problems while increasing yields substantially (Pinstrup-Anderson, 1997). Yet the World Bank Report of 1999, as quoted by Ismail Seregeldin (1999), suggests that doubling the yields of complex farming systems in an environmentally sound manner is a difficult challenge. Biotechnology and the associated bioinformatics for a food security and environmental stewardship program may be extremely useful in speed - ing up the technology development, which allows for fewer pesticides and other purchased inputs. Over the past 5 years, areas planted with transgenic crops have shown dramatic and continuing increases. From 2.8 million hectares in 1996, this area increased to 27.8 million hectares in 1998 (James 1997 and 1999). The United States alone accounted for 74% of the area devoted to transgenic crops. Developing countries have been late in starting research using biotechnology and there is a lot of catching up to do with limited resources. The scientific tools are fast evolving and capital intensive. Here again, strong and targeted collaboration between developing and developed countries will be beneficial to both regions. The promises are great. © 2003 by CRC Press LLC In developed regions, the private sector has invested and reaped the benefits of developing seeds of transgenic crops. However, the public sector has played an important catalytic role. Seregeldin (1999) argues in favor of public–private-sector collaboration to identify and put to work priority areas of technology development that will benefit developing countries while allowing the private sector to recover its investment. Recently, the Swiss company Syngenta and its partner, Myriad Genet - ics, a U.S. biotechnology company, revealed that they have not only decoded the rice genome, but have also found the location of most of the 50,000 genes it contains as well as the regulatory regions that control them. The map will give a big push to efforts to create new rice germplasm to feed the developing world’s population. Syngenta has promised to work with research institutes to pass the benefits of the rice genes on to subsistence farmers (Firn, 2001). With the revolution of information technology and the potential marriage between biotechnology and information technology (IT), bioinformatics is also becoming an important tool. It promises to speed up the process of developing crops and livestock that are genetically altered for higher productivity while remaining safe for the environment and consumers in both developing and developed regions. CONCLUSIONS In conclusion, I again partially quote Dr. Swaminathan, who advocates Gross National Happiness in addition to an increase in the Gross National Product. The major components of this index are: environmental protection, economic growth, cultural promotion and good governance. These are the covenants we must pursue for the 21st century. REFERENCES De Datta, S. K., H. U. Neue, D. Senadhira and C. Quijano. 1993. Success in Rice Improvement for Poor Soils. Proceedings of a Workshop on Adaptation of Plants to Soil Stress, August 1-4, 1993, pp. 248-268. INTSORMIL Pub. No. 94-2, University of Nebraska, Lincoln. Dingkuhn, M., H. F. Schnier, S. K. De Datta, K. Dörffling, and C. Javellana. 1991. Relation- ships between ripening phase productivity and crop duration, canopy photosynthesis, and senescence in transplanted and direct seeded lowland rice. Field Crops Research. 26. 327-345. Dingkuhn, M., H. F. Schnier, C. Javellana, R. Pamplona, and S. K. De Datta. 1992a. Effect of late season nitrogen application on canopy photosynthesis and yield of transplanted and direct seeded tropical lowland rice. I. Growth and yield components. Field Crops Research 28. 223-234. Dingkuhn, M., H. F. Schnier, C. Javellana, R. Pamplona, and S. K. De Datta. 1992b. Effect of late season nitrogen application on canopy photosynthesis and yield of transplanted and direct seeded tropical lowland rice. II. Canopy stratification at flowering stage. Field Crops Research 28. 235-249. Evans, L. T., and S. K. De Datta. 1979. The relation between irradiance and grain yield of irrigated rice in the tropics, as influenced by cultivar, nitrogen fertilizer application and month of planting. Field Crops Research. 2(1):1-17. © 2003 by CRC Press LLC Firn, D. 2001. International Economy:Syngenta Wins the Race to Publish Rice Genome— Food Crop Sequencing Project. Financial Times, Jan. 26, 2001. Flinn, J. C., S. K. De Datta, and E. Labadan. 1982. An analysis of long-term rice yields in a wetland soil. Field Crops Research. 5: 201-216. Hazell, P.B.R. and E. Lutz, (Eds). 1998. Agriculture and the Environment:Perspectives on Sustainable Rural Development. A World Bank Symposium, World Bank, Washing - ton, D.C. Herdt, R. 1993. The Potential Role of Biotechnology in Solving Food Production and Envi- ronmental Problems in Developing Countries. Paper prepared for the ASA-CSSA- SSSA Annual Meetings, Cincinnati, Ohio, 7-12 November 1993, 28 pp. International Rice Research Institute, the Rockefeller Foundation, and Syngenta AG. 2001. News about Rice and People: Golden Rice Arrives in Asia. International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications (ISAAA). 1999. Global Review of Commercialized Transgenic Crops. 1998. Brief No. 8. IPM CRSP Annual Highlights for Year 7 (1999-2000). 2000. Office of International Research and Development, Blacksburg, Virginia, 55 pp. IPM CRSP in Bangladesh, an Overview. 2001. Horticulture Research Center, Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute, 8 pp. James, C. 1997. Global Status of Transgenic Crops in 1997. ISAAA Brief No. 5. James, C. 1999. Global Review of Commercialized Transgenic Crops. 1998. ISAAA Brief No. 8. Office of International Research and Development (OIRD). IPM CRSP in Bangladesh. In:IPM CRSP—An Overview. Project managed by OIRD/Virginia Tech and funded by the USAID Global Bureau. It is a collaborative project between U.S. Land Grant Uni - versities (Virginia Tech, Pennsylvania State University, and Ohio State University) and National Systems in Bangladesh (BARC, BARI, BRRI, BSMR Agricultural University, DAE-Plant Protection wing and CARE/Bangladesh). International Col - laborators are IRRI, AVRDC, and NCPC Philippines. Pinstrup-Andersen, P., R. Pandya-Lorch, and M.W. Rosegrant. 1997. The World Food Situ- ation:Recent Developments, Emerging Issues, and Long-Term Prospects. 2020 Vision Food Policy Report, International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, D.C. Seregeldin, I. 1999. Biotechnology and Food Security in the 21st Century. In: Science, 285. July 16, 1999. AAAS (with assistance from Stanford University’s Highwire Press). Swaminathan, M.S. 2000. Indira Gandhi Prize for Peace, Disarmament and Development Response Speech. U.S. House of Representatives Title XII Legislation. Famine Prevention and Freedom from Hunger Improvement Act of 2000. H. R. 4002. Sec. 1. © 2003 by CRC Press LLC Water Harvesting and Management to Alleviate Drought Stress Gary W. Frasier CONTENTS Introduction What is Water Harvesting? Potential of Water Harvesting Types of Water Harvesting for Crops (Runoff Farming) Factors that Influence Runoff Farming Success Soil type Precipitation Crop Type Acceptance and Need as Viewed by User Advantages and Disadvantages of Water Harvesting References Appendix 16A: Scientific Names of Plants INTRODUCTION Many parts of the world’s land surface are too dry for intensive agriculture without supplemental water. Traditionally, supplemental water has been in the form of irrigation using surface water diversion or pumped groundwater. There are many locations in arid and semiarid areas where surface or groundwater for irrigation is inadequate, unavailable or unsuitable. Yet, many of these lands, in the past or currently, support some form of cultivated agriculture, even in areas that receive less than 200 mm of rainfall per year (Evenari et al., 1961). How can there be intensive agriculture in areas where annual rainfall is less than 200 mm? The answer is that crops are grown using a technique of water supply called water harvesting. In most arid lands, even with limited precipitation, relatively large quantities of water are potentially available if the rainwater can be concentrated, collected, and stored until needed. 1 6 © 2003 by CRC Press LLC WHAT IS WATER HARVESTING? Water harvesting is a technique of water supply that collects precipitation from a specific land area for some beneficial use. Precipitation runoff is collected from a relatively large area and stored or concentrated onto a smaller area. This provides a multiplication factor for maximizing the benefits of the limited precipitation. The water collection area can be a natural undisturbed hill slope or some type of prepared impermeable surface. The collected water can be used for growing crops, drinking water for humans and animals, or other domestic uses. It can be used immediately by placement in the soil (infiltration) or stored in an appropriate container for later use. The term water harvesting has several meanings describing a multitude of meth- ods for collecting and concentrating runoff water from various sources for a variety of purposes. The term is frequently used interchangeably with rain-fed, dry-land or irrigated agriculture (Reij et al., 1948). This chapter will use the meaning that water harvesting is a method of water supply entirely dependent upon local rainfall (over - land flow or ephemeral streamflow). Water harvesting for crop production is an intermediate point between rain-fed farming (dry-land agriculture) and standard irrigation from wells or rivers. Water harvesting as a means of water supply is not a “new” technique. There is evidence of water harvesting structures being used over 9000 years ago in the Edom Mountains of Southern Jordan, and the people of Ur practiced water harvesting as early as 4500 B.C. Studies have shown that extensive agricultural systems using water harvesting techniques existed in several areas 3000 to 4000 years ago in what we now refer to as the Middle East. There is evidence that similar techniques were used over 400 years ago in the southwestern United States, where Mesa Verde National Park is located (Frasier, 1984). Many of these ancient systems were located in areas where the annual precipitation was 200 to 500 mm per year. For these early systems to function satisfactorily, not only did the people effectively collect and store the limited rainfall, they also developed water management techniques to maximize the benefits of the limited water. POTENTIAL OF WATER HARVESTING A common concept is that water harvesting has been used only in, or is most suitable for, arid lands. In reality, water harvesting can be used almost anywhere where other water sources are inadequate or unavailable. If all the water that falls as precipitation on a given piece of land can be collected and put to beneficial use, there is usually adequate water to sustain life and support some form of agriculture. This can be illustrated using an example from the Negev Desert of Israel. Current yearly records show that precipitation ranges from 28 to 168 mm per year, with an average of about 86 mm per year. Most of the precipitation occurs during the winter months, Novem - ber to March, with about 16 rainy days per year, 12 days with precipitation greater than 1 mm, 3 days with precipitation greater than 10 mm and with only a single storm greater than 25 mm per day every 2 years. Average hourly intensities are relatively low, less than 5 mm/hour, but for short periods of 5 to 10 minutes, precipitation intensities up to 20 to 50 mm per hour have been recorded (Anonymous, [...]... 1 They consume and damage human foods in the field and storage In addition, they spoil food in storage by leaving urine and droppings, thus reducing the sales value 2 Through their gnawing and burrowing habit, they destroy many articles (packaging, clothing, furniture) and structures (floors, buildings) By gnawing through electrical cables they can cause fires 3 They are responsible for transmitting... grains in the hot climates of India Microbe infestations occur mostly in the field Both the microbe and insect infestations require relatively high levels of moisture in the grain for the pests to multiply — about 20% moisture or higher is needed Insects feeding and metabolizing the grain ingested will release moisture and, as this moisture increases, the environment for insects improves and the insect... and Y Aharoni 1961 Ancient agriculture in the Negev Science 133 (34 57):97 9-9 96 Frasier, G.W 19 83 Water harvesting for collecting and conserving water supplies In Alfisols in the Semi-Arid Tropics Proc Consultants’ Workshop on the State of the Art and Management Alternatives for Optimizing the Productivity of SAT Alfisols and Related Soils P Pathak, S.A El-Swaify and S Singh (Eds.), 1 -3 December 19 83, ... about 30 % (Cao et al., 2001a, b) The losses to insects and mites are estimated to be about 5% and microbes are also approximately 5% (Cao et al., 2001a) The major insect pests of grain are beetles and caterpillars (Metcalf and Metcalf, 19 93) These pests infest the grain usually from other infested grain stored in the same building or nearby In India, the insect species of most importance damaging the food. .. for procuring food grains try to create quality consciousness among farmers through education They are encouraged to adopt scientific methods of food- grain storage with a view to minimizing the qualitative and quantitative The quality control teams within these governmental agencies are responsible for monitoring the quality of food grains In spite of these monitoring mechanisms, India continues to... of more cost-effective processing and improved food quality However, the establishment of large factories in urban areas is unlikely to benefit rural farmers but will benefit the investors and the factory workers and thereby possibly increasing the influx of rural people to the towns In addition, the present shortage of expertise in food science in developing countries would make large-scale units... 2001b) PROTECTION OF STORED GRAINS Most grains in India are harvested and stored on farms before they are sold and stored in commercial facilities Most of the traditional methods for storing grains are not insect-, microbe- and rodent-proof The wooden, burlap and plastic storage facilities are easily invaded by rats and other pests In addition, the grain usually © 20 03 by CRC Press LLC has a high level... which makes the grain an ideal environment for insects and microbes To prevent rapid insect and microbe growth, the grain should contain no more than 13% moisture when placed in storage With a low level of moisture and uninfested with insects and mites, the grain is generally safe from insects and microbes if stored in heavy plastic bags However, the grain in a plastic bag is not safe from the invasion... pests If the grain has already been infected with aflatoxins, the high temperatures will not rid the grain of the toxin If the grain has a high level of the toxin, the only option is to destroy the grain Insect-infested grain can be fumigated with several different pesticides such as cyanide and methyl bromide, but these are dangerous materials that are highly toxic to humans and other animals These chemicals... commodity that plays a crucial part in raising the standard of living The development of a country must go hand in hand with the development of a food processing industry However, the question of whether such industry should be small- or large-scale needs to be assessed in each situation FOOD LOSSES Much food is lost due to spoilage during storage In tropical countries, the hot climate is conducive to . Protection wing and CARE/Bangladesh). International Col - laborators are IRRI, AVRDC, and NCPC Philippines. Pinstrup-Andersen, P., R. Pandya-Lorch, and M.W. Rosegrant. 1997. The World Food Situ- ation:Recent. is a fine idea, and science should unfold some of the unresolved issues. Unfortunately, the discussion in the developing region of the world is on the urgency of food security; in some instances,. survival and food production is often not understood in the policy arena. And, food security and increased food production are intimately linked together with environmental management. In fact,