85 plished through a saturation of the transmitted light intensity with increasing incident intensity. Outstanding performance for c60 relative to presently used optical limiting materials has been observed at 5320a for 8 ns pulses using solutions of c60 in toluene and in chloroform (CH3C1) [77]. The proposed mechanism for the optical limiting is that c60 is more absorptive for molecules in the triplet excited state than for the ground state (see s2.4). In this process, the initial absorption of a photon takes an electron from singlet So state to an excited singlet state. This is followed by a rapid inter-system crossing from the singlet to a metastable triplet state from which dipole-allowed transitions to the higher-lying triplet states can occur. Because of the higher excitation cross section for electrons in the metastable triplet state (relative to those in the ground state), an increase in the population of the metastable triplet state promotes further stronger absorption of photons [77]. Another interesting applications area for fuilerenes is based on materials that can be fabricated using fullerene-doped polymers. Polyvinylcarbazole (PVK) and other selected polymers, such as poly(parapheny1ene-vinylene) (PPV) and phenylmethylpolysilane (PMPS), doped with a mixture of CG0 and CTO have been reported to exhibit exceptionally good photoconductive properties [206, 207, 2081 which may lead to the development of future polymeric photoconductive materials. Small concentrations of fullerenes (e.g. ~ ~3%) by weight) lead to charge transfer of the photo-excited electrons in the polymer to the fullerenes, thereby promoting the conduction of mobile holes in the polymer [209]. Fullerene-doped polymers also have significant potential for use in applications, such as photo-diodes, photo-voltaic devices and as photo-refractive materials. Fullerenes have been shown to benefit the synthesis of Sic and diamond. Gruen and coworkers [210] have demonstrated that, by fragmentation of individual (260 molecules, diamond films of very small grain size can be syn- thesized, yielding superior wear resistance, and lubrication properties [2 101. Hamza and coworkers [211] have shown that by use of vacuum deposited C~O films, Sic thin films can be prepared at lower temperatures, and with several desirable properties. For example, by using a patterned Si/SiOz substrate, a patterned Sic surface could be prepared (though no effective etch is known for Sic), exploiting the fact that c60 bonds well to Si, but poorly to SiOz. Thus conventional Si technology could be used to prepare a surface with Si in the regions where the Sic coat is eventually to form, and Si02 in the regions where it should not form. Then the c60 is introduced, covering the Si regions and avoiding the Si02 regions. Finally, heating to 95O-125O0C, converts the CG0 on Si to an adhering Sic patch. Such patterned materials have potential as light-emitting diodes in optoelectronic circuits. In other materials synthesis applications, the utilization of the strong bonding of fullerenes to clean silicon surfaces, has led to the application of a monolayer of Cs0 as a bonding agent between thin silicon wafers [208]. This strong bonding property, together with the low chemical reactivity of fullerenes, have been utilized in the passivation of reactive surfaces by the adsorption of monolayers of CSO on aluminum and silicon surfaces [208]. Many research opportunities exist for the controlled manipulation of struc- tures of nm dimensions. Advances made in the characterization and ma- nipulation of carbon nanotubes should therefore have a substantial general impact on the science and technology of nanostructures. The exceptionally high modulus and strength of thin multi-wall carbon nanotubes can be used in the manipulation of carbon nanotubes and other nanostructures [212,213]. Many of the carbon nanotube applications presently under consideration relate to multi-wall carbon nanotubes, partly because of their greater availabil- ity, and because the applications do not explicitly depend on the 1D quantum effects associated with the small diameter singlewall carbon nanotubes. The caps of carbon nanotubes were shown to be more chemically reactive than the cylindrical sections [214], and the caps have been shown to be efficient electron emitters [215, 216, 2171. Therefore, applications of nanotubes for displays and for electron probe tips have thus been discussed in the litera- ture. The ability of carbon nanotubes to retain relatively high gas pressures within their hollow cores suggest another possible area for applications [218]. Carbon nanotubes have also been proposed as a flexible starting point for the synthesis of new nano-scale and nano-structured carbides, whereby the carbon nanotube serves as a template for the subsequent formation of car- bides. The sandwiching of layers of carbon cylinders surrounded by insulating BN cylinders on either side offers exciting possibilities for electronic applica- tions [219]. By analogy with carbon fibers which are used commercially in composites for structural strengthening and for enhancement of the electrical conductivity, it should also be possible to combine carbon nanotubes with a host polymer (or metal) to produce composites with physical properties that can be tailored to specific applications. The small size of carbon nanotubes allow them to be used in polymer composite materials that can be extruded through an aperture (die) to form shaped objects with enhanced strength and stiffness. Carbon nanotubes can be added to low viscosity paints that can be sprayed onto a surface, thereby enhancing the electrical conductivity of the coating. As further research on fullerenes and carbon nanotubes materials is carried out, it is expected, because of the extreme properties exhibited by these carbon-based materials, that other interesting physics and chemistry will be discovered, and that promising applications will be found for fullerenes, carbon nanotubes and related materials. 87 5 Acknowledgments The authors acknowledge fruitful discussions with Professors M. Endo, R. Saito, and R. A. Jishi. The MIT authors gratefully acknowledge support from NSF Grant #DMR-95-10093 and from AFOSR grant F49620-93-1- 0160. 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Elsevier Science, Oxford, 1999, pp 119 138 Burchell, T D., Porous carbon fiber -carbon binder composites In Carbon Materials f o r Advanced Technologies, ed T D Burchell, Elsevier Science, Oxford, 1999, pp 169 2 04 Economy, J., Daley, M and Mangun C., Activated carbon fibers - past, present and future, ACS Preprints (Fuel Chemistry Division), 1996 ,41 (1), 321 325 Dresselhaus, M S., Dresselhaus, G., Sugihara,... 1973 ,43 (9), 539 543 Arons, G N., Macnair, R N., Coffin, L G and Hogan, H D., Sorptive textile systems containing activated carbon fibers, Text Res J., 19 74, 44 (11), 8 74 883 Arons, G N and Macnair, R N., Activated carbon fabric prepared by pyrolysis and activation of phenolic fabric, Text Res J., 1975 ,45 (l), 9 1 Macnair, R N., Arons, G N and Coffin, L G., Sorptive composite fabrics containing activated carbon. .. not be suitable for some processes 2.3 Active carbonfibers Essentially, the technology of active carbon fibers is a combination of the technologies for carbon fibers and active carbons summarized above This section is an o u t h e of the historical development of ACF As already mentioned, the driving force behind the development of modern carbon fibers was the demand in the late-1950s for high strength... 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