Chapter 6 Conclusions and future directions In this book we have endeavoured to provide a fresh foundation for coastal planning and management by mixing theory with examples of best-practice from around the world. What has this approach told us about the current status of coastal planning and management; and what pointers has it given us to possible directions for the future? The main theme of the book has been that the coast, with its intensity of land and water use, is a place where the issues of economic development and environmental management, and their interactions with social and cultural values, are brought into sharp relief. If there are problems with any of these issues, in any area of a coastal nation, the symptoms are likely to show up at the coast first. Several other themes and principles emerge from the book. They are necessarily broad in scope, given the enormity of the issues and challenges facing coastal managers, but we summarize them in order to stimulate further discussion and research. THE CENTRAL ROLE OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT PRINCIPLES AND APPROACHES Coastal programmes are now generally based on principles of sustainable development, the precautionary principle, and inter-generational equity. The challenge for coastal planners and managers is to transfer sustainable development principles into tangible management outcomes. We hope that the tools and techniques described in this book go some way towards meeting this challenge. THE INSEPARABLE NATURE OF COASTAL PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT Coastal planning and management activities are generally so strongly linked that in successful coastal programmes they are almost Copyright 1999 Taylor & Francis Group indistinguishable. The interweaving of planning and management to create a single coastal programme can help to break down institutional boundaries or possible professional rivalries between planners and managers, and is to be encouraged. THE INCREASING EMPHASIS ON CONSENSUAL STYLES OF COASTAL PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT Consensual plan production has become the most widely used approach for integrated coastal plans at the regional and local levels. Increased community empowerment and the problems caused by more directive planning styles have led to different community-based, collaborative and co-management methods of coastal management planning. Innovative consensus-building tools have to be used to ensure that consensus does not equate to ‘lowest common denominator’, resulting in bland outcomes. This is especially so where conflict arises, often in the case of siting hazardous and/or polluting industries. Early indications of the use of consensual styles of planning in these cases suggest that they can be successful when adequate resources are allocated to them, although they are yet to be used in extreme cases of conflict. COASTAL MANAGEMENT IS A SHARED CONCERN Responsibility for sustainably managing the coast is shared by all levels of government, from international to local, along with coastal users, residents, private companies and advocacy groups. Governments are increasingly realizing the long-term benefits of engaging all stakeholders on the coast in coastal programme development. This partnership approach is rapidly evolving from just a ‘good idea’ into a cornerstone of many coastal initiatives around the world. GOOD COASTAL MANAGEMENT IS FOUNDED ON AN APPRECIATION OF LOCAL CULTURAL FACTORS Western approaches to coastal planning and management, while successful in many countries, especially those with European land-tenure systems, may require modification if they are to be successfully integrated into local cultural settings. Traditional knowledge about coastal resources and their management can be invaluable in formulating management prescriptions. The bringing together of western and traditional management tools and techniques is showing increasing signs of success in many developing countries. Indeed, there are increasing signs of a genuine two-way flow of knowledge and experience in coastal management between developed and developing countries. Copyright 1999 Taylor & Francis Group THE CROSSING OVER OF PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES Coastal programmes have become a melting pot for various planning and management techniques which have crossed over from other disciplines. Land-use planning techniques, such as separating conflicting uses through zoning, blend with economic analysis and risk management, co- management and a host of other approaches to help address coastal issues. Coastal planners and managers are increasingly being encouraged to add to—and occasionally stir—this melting pot to find innovative ways of addressing coastal problems and opportunities. DESIGNING A MIXED COASTAL PLANNING SYSTEM CAN BE SUCCESSFUL Issues requiring coastal management and planning cut across jurisdictions, occur at widely different scales, and involve a diversity of stakeholders. No single plan can be expected to cope with all coastal issues, but management practices and plans can be substantially improved by mixing integrated coastal plans at different scales, orientations and statutory bases. Cascading planning systems designed to link broad strategic plans to detailed local planning initiatives are an example of such integration. THE IMPORTANCE OF MEASURING SUCCESS A plethora of coastal plans exists around the world, addressing vastly different issues, often in very different ways. But a common feature of most of these plans is the absence of quantitative evidence of their effectiveness— this despite the often considerable resources used in their formulation and implementation. Politicians, government departments and the public are increasingly expecting coastal programmes to provide clear demonstrations of success. Performance measures, evaluation criteria and success indicators have become part of the coastal manager’s lexicon. Yet measuring how successful coastal programmes are is only just beginning in earnest. Coastal programme managers are increasingly required to include monitoring and evaluation measures in programme design at the outset—a difficult task without a set of commonly accepted coastal management performance measures. Facing the future Chapter 2 could invoke contrasting responses in the reader: pessimism at its its rather depressing list of often chronic problems, painting a not too bright future for the coast; or excitement and optimism about the challenges that these problems present. A realistic coastal planner/manager is one who would absorb a little of both and plan to tackle pragmatically the Copyright 1999 Taylor & Francis Group major challenges facing the world’s coast, while being creative and flexible in dealing with the inherent limitations of the workings of government and private sector bureaucracies. To this planner/manager we offer our Six Virtues of Coastal Planning: to seek, to understand, to develop, to link, to bring into mainstream, to sustain. And the challenges that go with them. • To seek — the money and willingness to implement plans; — true economic values of coastal resources and implementing management responses which reflect those values; — an appropriate balance between traditional management practices and knowledge, and typical western approaches to coastal management; — the mechanisms which allow developing countries to sustainably exploit coastal resources and avoid many of the mistakes of developed countries; — optimal solutions to resource sharing on the coast, especially emerging industries and uses, such as recreational and tourism demands; — workable strategies for ensuring equitable access to coastal resources for all sections of society; — locally sustainable and tailored economic and social growth for the coastlines of developing countries. • To understand — the values and expectations of all stakeholders in coastal management; — the role of traditional and user knowledge; — and deal with uncertainties in decision making; — the social and biophysical interrelationships between catchments and coasts and oceans; — the capacities required for coastal management, including training, monitoring and scientific studies. • To develop — and maintain appropriate stewardship of coastal resources tailored to social and cultural settings of coastal nations; — meaningful indicators for the evaluation of coastal initiatives. • To link — coastal initiatives at all scales—from international to local; — integrated and subject plans. • To bring into mainstream — monitoring and evaluation at all stages of coastal management; — sustainable economic and social development. Copyright 1999 Taylor & Francis Group • To sustain — community expectations after plans are completed; — the momentum going from Agenda 21, and related international initiatives; — the energy of local coastal managers. Afterword The enormous problems facing the world’s coastlines are unlikely to diminish with time. Population increase, technological change, economic growth and ever more waste generation make it likely that the problems will become even more acute. The key question is thus not if, or when, these pressures will occur, but whether the coast can be managed to sustainably absorb them. And in this of course lies the fascination of being involved with the management of the coast—the huge challenge it presents to forge creative and innovative solutions to apparently intractable management problems. We do not pretend with this book to have offered all the solutions, but rather to have provided a wide selection of methods and models to guide the search for environmentally, culturally and economically appropriate planning and management outcomes. We will judge our success by the extent to which we have stimulated the searchers and helped them to meet their challenges with optimism. Copyright 1999 Taylor & Francis Group Appendix A Some definitions of the coastal zone for planning and management The following are definitions of the coastal zone used to define areas within which coastal management policies apply. Chapter 1 describes the advantages and disadvantages of each type of definition. Fixed distance definitions Sri Lanka Coast Conservation A ct (1990) The area lying within a limit of three hundred metres landward of the Mean High Water Line and a limit of two kilometres seaward of the Mean Low Water Line and in the case of rivers, streams, lagoons, or any other body of water connected to the sea either permanently or periodically, the landward boundary shall extend to a limit of two kilometres measured perpendicular to the straight line base line drawn between the natural entrance points (defined by the Mean Low Water Line) thereof and shall include waters of such rivers, streams and lagoons or any other body of water so connected to the sea. Example Fixed Definition Boundaries of the Coastal Zone (Coastal Committee of New South Wales, 1990; Sorensen and McCreary, 1990) Copyright 1999 Taylor & Francis Group Variable distance definitions The South Pacific Regional Environment Programme (1993) The coastal zone is a region of indeterminate and variable width. It extends from and includes, the wholly marine (i.e. the seabed, the overlying waters and their resources) to the wholly terrestrial (i.e. beyond the limits of marine incursion and the reach of salt spray). Linking these two environments is the tidal area which forms a transition between land and the sea. Definition according to use United States Federal Coastal Zone Management Act (1990) Section 304 (Note that each coastal State must interpret the Federal definition through the production of maps and charts): The term ‘coastal zone’ means the coastal waters (including the lands therein and thereunder) and the adjacent shorelands (including the lands therein and thereunder), strongly influenced by each other and proximity to the shorelines of the several coastal states, and includes islands, transitional and intertidal areas, salt marshes, wetlands and beaches. The zone extends, in Great Lakes waters, to the international boundary between the United States and Canada and, in other areas, seaward to the outer limit of State title and ownership… [continues with list of Acts]… The zone extends inland from the shorelines only to the extent necessary to control shorelands, the uses of which have a direct and significant impact on the coastal waters. A ustralian Commonwealth Coastal Policy (1995) For the purpose and actions of the Commonwealth, the boundaries of the coastal zone are considered to extend as far inland and as far seaward as necessary to achieve the Coastal Policy objectives, with a primary focus on the land-sea interface. Copyright 1999 Taylor & Francis Group United Kingom Government Environment Committee Report on Coastal Zone Protection and Planning (1992) We conclude that definitions of the coastal zone may vary from area to area and from issue to issue, and that a pragmatic approach must therefore be taken at the appropriate national, regional or local level. Wo rld Bank Environment Department (1993) For practical planning purposes, the coastal zone is the special area [original holding], endowed with special characteristics, of which the boundaries are often determined by the special problems to be tackled. OECD Environment Directorate (1991, 1993) What constitutes the coastal zone depends on the purpose at hand. From both the administrative and scientific viewpoints, the extent of the zone will vary depending on the nature of the problem. Accord- ingly, the boundaries of the coastal zone should extend as far inland and as far seaward as necessary to achieve the objectives of management. A ustralian Commonwealth House of Representatives Inquiry (1980) Any definition of the coastal zone should be flexible, and should depend on the issue being confronted. . New South Wales Government Draft Revised Coastal Policy (1994)—Option 5 an issues based definition where the boundaries of the coastal zone extend as far inland and as far seaward as necessary to achieve the policy’s objectives, with a focus on the land sea interface… Copyright 1999 Taylor & Francis Group Appendix B Examples of texts, conference and workshop proceedings that outline coastal problems around the world (Only the most recent published references of conference series are shown.) • Asia-Pacific: various workshops and conferences (Chua and Pauly, 1989; McLean and Mimura, 1993; Hotta and Dutton, 1994). • Africa (e.g. Sowman, 1993; Linden, 1994; World Bank, 1994; Kimani, 1995). • Australasia: proceedings of the Coast to Coast (Australia) conference series (Kriwoken and McAdam, 1994; Harvey, 1996), the Institution of Engineers (Australia and New Zealand) (Australian Institute of Civil Engineers, 1993a,b). • Europe (including Eastern Europe and Scandinavia): proceedings of the Eurocoast conferences (Taussik and Mitchell, 1997) and the European Union for Coastal Conservation (Healy and Doody, 1995; Jones et al., 1996). • North America: proceedings of the Coastal Zone (e.g. Magoon et al., 1993) and Coastal Zone Canada (e.g. Coastal Zone Canada ‘94, 1994), conference series book of Beatley et al. (1993) and many individual articles in the journals Coastal Management and Ocean and Coastal Management. In addition, there are conferences on various coastal management problems on a sector-by-sector or subject-by-subject basis. Copyright 1999 Taylor & Francis Group References Agardy, M. (1990) Integrating tourism in multiple use planning for coastal and marine protected areas. In Proceedings of 1990 Congress on Coastal and Marine Tourism: A Symposium and Workshop on Balancing Conservation and Economic Development, Honolulu, Hawaii, 21–31 May, (eds M.Miller and J.Auyong), pp. 204– 210, National Coastal Resources Research and Development Institute, Newport, OR. Alcala, A. and Russ, G. (1990) A direct test of the effects of protective management on abundance and yield of tropical marine resources. Journal du Conseil International pour l’Exploration de la Mer, 46, 40–47. Alcock, D. (1991) Education and extension: management’s best strategy. Australian Parks & Recreation, 27(1), 15–17. 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