9. In the illustration below, the strand with an (*) is the (A) promoter. (B) Okasaki fragment. (C) template. (D) lagging strand. (E) leading strand. 10. Darwin’s Natural Selection includes all of the following EXCEPT (A) Variation can be due to mutations. (B) The difference in survivability between organisms may be due to variation. (C) Not all organisms may survive, due to competition. (D) Organisms produce more offspring than can survive. (E) Some organisms will be more fit to survive than others. EXPLANATION OF ANSWERS FOR MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. The correct answer is (B). In RNA, thymine is replaced by uracil, so the correct choice is (B), where DNA adenine is said to bond to an RNA thymine. All the other choices are incorrect, including the DNA guanine to an RNA cytosine. The testmaker may depend on the student vaguely remembering that a certain base-pairing between DNA and RNA is not possible and may choose choice (C) as being correct. This is not the case. 2. The correct answer is (E). Guanine is not replaced in RNA. It is found in both DNA and RNA. The trick here, once again, is the vague recollection of something being replaced. Of course, thymine in DNA is replaced by uracil in RNA, and uracil is on the list. However, the question here asks about the replacement of guanine, which does not occur. The bases listed in choices (A) and (C) also are found in RNA. MOLECULAR GENETICS—DNA AND EVOLUTION 137 Peterson’s n SAT II Success: Biology E/M www.petersons.com 3. The correct answer is (C). These recent conclusions about mutations—recall that Darwin did not know of mutations—are all the reverse of those listed in the choices, with the exception of choice (C), the correct answer. Rates, in fact, tend to be below in populations, mutations are generally not lethal, any gene location can be affected, and they are felt to be the source of genetic variation. Darwin felt over-production of offspring was the source of potential variation. 4. The correct answer is (A). The complimentary strand for the indicated DNA strand would begin at the 38 end, not at the 58 end. In addition, it would also have thymine—T. Finally, opposite A would be T, and vice-versa, and opposite G would be C, also vice-versa. 5. The correct answer is (B). Choices (A), (C), and (E) are all places on the DNA that are constant and form the sides of the DNA “ladder.” The place at which the molecule differs is in the bases that form the rungs of this ladder, providing DNA with a virtually infinite number of variations. Ribose, of course, refers to RNA and should not be on the list when discussing DNA. 6. The correct answer is (B). tRNA, which contains 3 anti-codon bases for every amino acid it carries, matches up opposite the mRNA codons that are also three bases long. This means that the mRNA in question potentially codes for 429/3 amino acids. This gives us a potential of 143 amino acids or choice (A). However, the stop sequence does not code for an amino acid, so this gives us 142 amino acids coded for. Care should be exercised when considering the start sequence. While not a part of the resulting protein, that site does code for the amino acid methionine in the translation process. 7. The correct answer is (B). The foundation of Griffith’s work was that the mice that received the killed Smooth-coat strain/ Rough-coat strain mix, in fact, died. This suggested that the inheritable trait of producing a lethal substance to mice could be inherited by the R-strain bacteria. All the other choices are true and led to the experiment outline briefly in choice (B), but the conclusion of that experiment, once again, was that all the mice died. 8. The correct answer is (A). In DNA replication, each new strand receives half of the original DNA, a process said to be semi-conservative—it conserves only half of the original DNA for each new strand produced. Crossing over and non-disjunction are macro-genetic events that occur during meiosis and pass on all of the genetic information for the event. Crossing over exchanges whole parts—however long—of one chromosome with whole CHAPTER 5 138 Peterson’s n SAT II Success: Biology E/Mwww.petersons.com parts of a homologous chromosome. Non-disjunction causes an entire chromosome to be incorrectly separated. Translation and transcription pass along the entire code for a protein from RNA to polypeptide and DNA to RNA, respectively. 9. The correct answer is (E). The strand with a (*) is being replicated from the 58 end onward and will proceed without delay. The strand with the 38 end as a start—opposite the 58 end on its compliment, the sense strand—makes this strand the anti-sense strand and is fashioned piece by piece from Okasaki fragments. These fragments are bonded onto the anti-sense strand with DNA ligases. The construction of the 38 strand then proceeds slower than the construction of the 58 end and is said to lag behind. Since the strand with a (*) is the 58 end, it is not an Okasaki fragment, nor is it a template; the sense strand is the template and a promoter is a molecule that starts the process: it is not a DNA molecule, but a protein. 10. The correct answer is (A). Darwin did not know of mutations, so choice (A) is the correct answer. Fundamental to his idea of natural selection was that, in order, (1) organisms produce more offspring than can survive and, (2) due to competition, not all organisms will survive, which means, (3) some organisms will be more fit to survive than others, and (4) variation may be the reason for the difference in survivability. MOLECULAR GENETICS—DNA AND EVOLUTION 139 Peterson’s n SAT II Success: Biology E/M www.petersons.com VOCABULARY adenine anticodon base pairing base substitutions codons complementary cytosine deletions deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) deoxyribose DNA polymerase DNA replication double helix Down’s syndrome duplication exons guanine hydrogen bonds insertions introns inversion mRNA mutation nitrogenous base nondisjunction nucelotides peptide bond point mutation promoters proteins protein synthesis ribonucleic acid (RNA) ribose RNA polymerase RNA primer rRNA template thymine transcription translation translocation tRNA uracil CHAPTER 5 140 Peterson’s n SAT II Success: Biology E/Mwww.petersons.com Unit III—Organizations and Populations Chapter 6 ORGANISMS AND POPULATIONS OVERVIEW This material constitutes about 30 percent of the SAT II Biology exam. This part of the study of biology, then, contains the bulk of the material on the scale of entire organisms. Previous chapters have dealt basically with how the organisms function mostly at the molecular level. We now explore organism-level structure—and, therefore, function—and on a grander scale, the biology of the organism and how organisms as populations interact with one another and with other organisms, as well as with their environment. Carolus Linnaeus is credited with organizing living things into understandable groups based on their structures and giving them a two-part name. Today, we use many characteristics, including behavior and, more recently, DNA analysis. Since the earliest times, humans have attempted to understand their world, and one of the ways to start the process is to organize it. The way humans have done this has changed over time. This chapter is about the grouping of organisms. Some of the vocabulary at the end of the chapter will not be detailed here, but we suggest that the student know all of those terms; this holds true for all the chapters in this book. CLASSIFICATION Taxonomy, or the science of classifying organisms, groups organisms into categories based on various characteristics. SCHEMA Just as we find in grocery stores, the organisms are placed in specific categories. Imagine trying to find an item in the store if all of the delivery vehicles dumped their goods at the front door. In a like manner, grouping organisms has many benefits. Imagine proposing that a predator of a parasite be introduced into the local environment in an attempt to control the parasite population, but instead, the organism you believe to be the predator is actually a slight variation of that predator and has no interest whatsoever in the parasite you are trying to eliminate. You may now have two problems to deal with, and at the very least, you haven’t done anything to help control the parasite. 143 Peterson’s n SAT II Success: Biology E/M www.petersons.com Aristotle Aristotle’s classification system proposed that if something moves, it is an animal, and if it doesn’t, it is a plant. Of course, sponges were mistakenly taken for plants, and when they threatened the shellfish industry centuries ago, were “killed” by being cut up and tossed back into the sea. To the surprise of the shellfish harvesters, the next year, the number of sponges had increased; the shellfishers were actually helping the sponges reproduce (asexually) by their actions. Linnaeus Linnaeus proposed naming organisms by a two-name system that we call binomial nomenclature. These were very specific names based on the organism’s characteristics and are the genus and species of today. Note that the genus is always capitalized and the species is not, as in Terrestris americanus, and the entire name is underlined or italicized. Modern The modern system of classification now contains five major groups called kingdoms. Life on the planet could be seen as analogous to a grocery store. The major consumer item areas, such as produce, dairy, and canned goods, would be analogous to the kingdoms of living things. As with the grocery store, the sub-categories get more and more specific until it is possible to name an item exclusive of all other items in the store. You should know the categories, starting with the largest (the kingdom) and continuing to narrower and narrower groups in the sequence: Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, and Species. In plants, the word “phylum” is replaced with the word “division.” Modern day study has become so detailed that we will now find such categories as sub-genus and super-species. The student is responsible only for the above schema. Most beginning biology students become familiar with the mnemonic—memory device—in a variety of expressions, one being King Phillip Come Out For Goodness Sakes. The first letter of each word, in the order given, is the first letter of each of the major categories in taxonomy. CHAPTER 6 144 Peterson’s n SAT II Success: Biology E/Mwww.petersons.com EXAMPLES OF GENUS AND SPECIES Canis familiarus domesticated dog Felis feline domesticated cats Homo sapiens modern humans MODERN TAXONOMY Today, scientists generally agree on five major categories of living things, or kingdoms, although there are several classification systems. Students may want to become familiar with how these categories came to be agreed upon. You should recall that some of these organisms were mentioned in other chapters and at other levels. The good news is that the SAT II Biology exam does not test for informa- tion as detailed as how the phylogenic categories arose. A brief word about viruses seems appropriate at the beginning of a discussion on the taxonomy of living things. Viruses, while not considered a living thing, can, nonetheless, take over the cell chemistry of a living thing to reproduce. We will now outline the schema of living things. PROKARYOTE (MONERAN) Prokaryotes are single-celled, microscopic prokaryotic (see Chapter 2) cells with no distinct nucleus or other membrane-enclosed organelles. ORGANISMS AND POPULATIONS 145 Peterson’s n SAT II Success: Biology E/M www.petersons.com Bacteria Bacteria have cell walls composed of peptidoglycan, an amino acid–sugar complex, and circular DNA. Composition of the cell wall provides us with the Gram staining means of identifying certain types of bacteria. Reproduction of bacteria was outlined in an earlier chapter. Some bacteria possess flagella. While many bacteria are decomposers, some fix nitrogen and other elements in a form usable by organisms, and some are pathogenic. A. Shapes Bacteria can be found in three shapes: coccus (round-shaped), bacillus (rod-shaped)—the one the SAT II Biology exam commonly refers to when asking a question about bacteria—and spirillus (spiral-shaped). B. Types Aerobic (oxygen-needing) bacteria are the largest group of bacteria. Anaerobic (not needing oxygen) bacteria are found in two groups: those that need an oxygen-free environment (obligate) and those that do not need a lack of oxygen, but a small amount of oxygen will not kill them (facultative). CHAPTER 6 146 Peterson’s n SAT II Success: Biology E/Mwww.petersons.com [...]... on how they obtain nutrients A Saprophytic Live off dead organisms www.petersons.com 14 8 Peterson’s n SAT II Success: Biology E/M ORGANISMS AND POPULATIONS B Parasites Live off live organisms C Symbiotic Work in concert with other organisms Members The following are the major groups of fungi covered on the SAT II Biology Exam A Molds (the zygospore fungi) Molds invade hosts through root-like hyphae,... same tree 5 Angiosperms—include the flowering plants, a major evolutionary adaptation for the angiosperms, and produce coated or covered seeds within an ovary on the flower Peterson’s n SAT II Success: Biology E/M 15 1 www.petersons.com CHAPTER 6 6 Classification • Monocots—In seeded plants, the structure that stores the next generation’s embryo, as well as a good amount of nutrients to get the embryo... “connected,” helping to pass on nutrients 8 Organs—vegetative organs are roots, stems, and leaves Reproductive organs are flowers, fruits, and seeds • Seeds—contain the next generation’s embryo as well as stored nutrients Under the right conditions and with the absorption of water, the seed germinates The seed then www.petersons.com 15 2 Peterson’s n SAT II Success: Biology E/M ORGANISMS AND POPULATIONS... some cases, cells with chloroplasts Peterson’s n SAT II Success: Biology E/M 15 3 www.petersons.com CHAPTER 6 • Roots—are the extensions of the stem, in a manner of speaking, into the ground and provide for water transportation, anchorage, some support, and possibly storage • Flowers—the reproductive organ of flowering plants, students should know the parts and their function x Pistil—the female reproductive... respond to interval stimuli, such as hormones and external environmental stimuli, by tropisms and photoperiodism 1 Hormones—plants produce hormones that can pass from one cell to the other and affect the growth and differentiation of plant tissues www.petersons.com 15 4 Peterson’s n SAT II Success: Biology E/M ORGANISMS AND POPULATIONS • Auxins—promotes the elongation of certain cells and helps in the growth... Chemotropism—response to chemical 3 Photoperiodism—the response by plants to varying amounts of light over time, particularly the length of day and night • Long-day plants—are stimulated to bloom by increasing amount of daylight or, conversely, a decreasing amount of dark Peterson’s n SAT II Success: Biology E/M 15 5 www.petersons.com CHAPTER 6 • Short-day plants—are stimulated by decreasing amount of light to enter... process of reproduction, so their habitat is very moist In reproduction, for example, the sperm must swim to the egg Adult bryophytes are haploid, entering the diploid www.petersons.com 15 0 Peterson’s n SAT II Success: Biology E/M ORGANISMS AND POPULATIONS stage when the sperm fertilizes the egg Following this, spores are produced by meiosis and alternation of generation has once again brought about... method known as phagocytosis The paramecium, also a heterotroph, moves about using tiny hair-like projections known as cilia Cilia also help the paramecium in engulfing food Peterson’s n SAT II Success: Biology E/M 14 7 www.petersons.com CHAPTER 6 Eukaryotic algae The plant-like protists, they include green algae, brown algae, golden algae, diatoms, dinoflagellates, red algae, and the euglena The euglena,... for reproduction This group also includes the much sought after truffle C Mushroom (the club fungi that form basidiospores) Multicellular fungi include the well-known mushroom Peterson’s n SAT II Success: Biology E/M 14 9 www.petersons.com CHAPTER 6 D Lichens A symbiotic union between fungi and either a chlorophyta [eukaryotic algae] or a cyanobacteria PLANTS Multicellular and autotrophs, these organisms... evidence it provides for evolution The student should be familiar with these evolutionary connections In an outline such as this, a biology text is indispensable and provides the detail that would make this a text on zoology or comparative anatomy if it were included The SAT II Biology exam tests more on the related systems found in organisms, with comparisons to humans, than it does on the taxa of the . event. Crossing over exchanges whole parts—however long—of one chromosome with whole CHAPTER 5 13 8 Peterson’s n SAT II Success: Biology E/Mwww.petersons.com parts of a homologous chromosome. Non-disjunction. primer rRNA template thymine transcription translation translocation tRNA uracil CHAPTER 5 14 0 Peterson’s n SAT II Success: Biology E/Mwww.petersons.com Unit III—Organizations and Populations Chapter 6 ORGANISMS AND POPULATIONS OVERVIEW This. AND POPULATIONS OVERVIEW This material constitutes about 30 percent of the SAT II Biology exam. This part of the study of biology, then, contains the bulk of the material on the scale of entire