Historical Importance of the Vietnam War: The Vietnam War was the prolonged struggle between nationalist forces attempting to unify the country of Vietnam under a communist government and the United States (with the aid of the South Vietnamese) attempting to prevent the spread of communism. Engaged in a war that many viewed as having no way to win, U.S. leaders lost the American public's support for the war. Since the end of the war, the Vietnam War has become a benchmark for what not to do in all future U.S. foreign conflicts. Dates of the Vietnam War: 1959 April 30, 1975 Also Known As: American War in Vietnam, Vietnam Conflict, Second Indochina War, War Against the Americans to Save the Nation Overview of the Vietnam War: Ho Chi Minh Comes Home There had been fighting in Vietnam for decades before the Vietnam War began. The Vietnamese had suffered under French colonial rule for nearly six decades when Japan invaded portions of Vietnam in 1940. It was in 1941, when Vietnam had two foreign powers occupying them, that communist Vietnamese revolutionary leader Ho Chi Minh arrived back in Vietnam after spending thirty years traveling the world. Once Ho was back in Vietnam, he established a headquarters in a cave in northern Vietnam and established the Viet Minh, whose goal was to rid Vietnam of the French and Japanese occupiers. Having gained support for their cause in northern Vietnam, the Viet Minh announced the establishment of an independent Vietnam with a new government called the Democratic Republic of Vietnam on September 2, 1945. The French, however, were not willing to give up their colony so easily and fought back. For years, Ho had tried to court the United States to support him against the French, including supplying the U.S. with military intelligence about the Japanese during World War II. Despite this aid, the United States was fully dedicated to their Cold War foreign policy of containment, which meant preventing the spread of Communism. This fear of the spread of Communism was heightened by the U.S. "domino theory," which stated that if one country in Southeast Asia fell to Communism then surrounding countries would also soon fall. To help prevent Vietnam from becoming a communist country, the U.S. decided to help France defeat Ho and his revolutionaries by sending the French military aid in 1950. France Steps Out, U.S. Steps In In 1954, after suffering a decisive defeat at Dien Bien Phu, the French decided to pull out of Vietnam. At the Geneva Conference of 1954, a number of nations met to determine how the French could peacefully withdraw. The agreement that came out of the conference (called the Geneva Accords) stipulated a cease fire for the peaceful withdrawal of French forces and the temporary division of Vietnam along the 17th parallel (which split the country into communist North Vietnam and non-communist South Vietnam). In addition, a general democratic election was to be held in 1956 that would reunite the country under one government. The United States refused to agree to the election, fearing the communists might win. With help from the United States, South Vietnam carried out the election only in South Vietnam rather than countrywide. After eliminating most of his rivals, Ngo Dinh Diem was elected. His leadership, however, proved so horrible that he was killed in 1963 during a coup supported by the United States. Since Diem had alienated many South Vietnamese during his tenure, communist sympathizers in South Vietnam established the National Liberation Front (NLF), also known as the Viet Cong, in 1960 to use guerilla warfare against the South Vietnamese. First U.S. Ground Troops Sent to Vietnam As the fighting between the Viet Cong and the South Vietnamese continued, the U.S. continued to send additional advisers to South Vietnam. When the North Vietnamese fired directly upon two U.S. ships in international waters on August 2 and 4, 1964 (known as the Gulf of Tonkin Incident), Congress responded with the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution. This resolution gave the President the authority to escalate U.S. involvement in Vietnam. President Lyndon Johnson used that authority to order the first U.S. ground troops to Vietnam in March 1965. Johnson's Plan for Success President Johnson's goal for U.S. involvement in Vietnam was not for the U.S. to win the war, but for U.S. troops to bolster South Vietnam's defenses until South Vietnam could take over. By entering the Vietnam War without a goal to win, Johnson set the stage for future public and troop disappointment when the U.S. found themselves in a stalemate with the North Vietnamese and the Viet Cong. From 1965 to 1969, the U.S. was involved in a limited war in Vietnam. Although there were aerial bombings of the North, President Johnson wanted the fighting to be limited to South Vietnam. By limiting the fighting parameters, the U.S. forces would not conduct a serious ground assault into the North to attack the communists directly nor would there be any strong effort to disrupt the Ho Chi Minh Trail (the Viet Cong's supply path that ran through Laos and Cambodia). Life in the Jungle U.S. troops fought a jungle war, mostly against the well-supplied Viet Cong. The Viet Cong would attack in ambushes, set up booby traps, and escape through a complex network of underground tunnels. For U.S. forces, even just finding their enemy proved difficult. Since Viet Cong hid in the dense brush, U.S. forces would drop Agent Orange or napalm bombs which cleared an area by causing the leaves to drop off or to burn away. In every village, U.S. troops had difficulty determining which, if any, villagers were the enemy since even women and children could build booby traps or help house and feed the Viet Cong. U.S. soldiers commonly became frustrated with the fighting conditions in Vietnam. Many suffered from low morale, became angry, and some used drugs. Surprise Attack On January 30, 1968, the North Vietnamese surprised both the U.S. forces and the South Vietnamese by orchestrating a coordinated assault with the Viet Cong to attack about a hundred South Vietnamese cities and towns. Although the U.S. forces and the South Vietnamese army were able to repel the assault known as the Tet Offensive, this attack proved to Americans that the enemy was stronger and better organized than they had been led to believe. The Tet Offensive was a turning point in the war because President Johnson, faced now with an unhappy American public and bad news from his military leaders in Vietnam, decided to no longer escalate the war. Nixon's Plan for "Peace With Honor" In 1969, Richard Nixon became the new U.S. President and he had his own plan to end U.S. involvement in Vietnam. President Nixon outlined a plan called Vietnamization, which was a process to remove U.S. troops from Vietnam while handing back the fighting to the South Vietnamese. The withdrawal of U.S. troops began in July 1969. To bring a faster end to hostilities, President Nixon also expanded the war into other countries, such as Laos and Cambodia a move that created thousands of protests, especially on college campuses, back in America. To work toward peace, new peace talks began in Paris on January 25, 1969. When the U.S. had withdrawn most of its troops from Vietnam, the North Vietnamese staged another massive assault, called the Easter Offensive (also called the Spring Offensive), on March 30, 1972. North Vietnamese troops crossed over the demilitarized zone (DMZ) at the 17th parallel and invaded South Vietnam. The remaining U.S. forces and the South Vietnamese army fought back. The Paris Peace Accords On January 27, 1973, the peace talks in Paris finally succeeded in producing a cease-fire agreement. The last U.S. troops left Vietnam on March 29, 1973, knowing they were leaving a weak South Vietnam who would not be able to withstand another major communist North Vietnam attack. Reunification of Vietnam After the U.S. had withdrawn all its troops, the fighting continued in Vietnam. In early 1975, North Vietnam made another big push south which toppled the South Vietnamese government. South Vietnam officially surrendered to communist North Vietnam on April 30, 1975. On July 2, 1976, Vietnam was reunited as a communist country, the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. 1858-1884 - France invades Vietnam and makes Vietnam a colony. October 1930 - Ho Chi Minh helps found the Indochinese Communist Party. September 1940 - Japan invades Vietnam. May 1941 - Ho Chi Minh establishes the Viet Minh (League for the Independence of Vietnam). September 2, 1945 - Ho Chi Minh declares an independent Vietnam, called the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. January 1950 - The Viet Minh receive military advisors and weapons from China. July 1950 - The United States pledges $15 million worth of military aid to France to help them fight in Vietnam. May 7, 1954 - The French suffer a decisive defeat at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu. July 21, 1954 - The Geneva Accords creates a cease-fire for the peaceful withdrawal of the French from Vietnam and provides a temporary boundary between North and South Vietnam at the 17th parallel. October 26, 1955 - South Vietnam declares itself the Republic of Vietnam, with newly elected Ngo Dinh Diem as president. December 20, 1960 - The National Liberation Front (NLF), also called the Viet Cong, is established in South Vietnam. November 2, 1963 - South Vietnamese President Ngo Dinh Diem is executed during a coup. August 2 and 4, 1964 - North Vietnamese attack two U.S. destroyers sitting in international waters (the Gulf of Tonkin Incident). August 7, 1964 - In response to the Gulf of Tonkin Incident, the U.S. Congress passes the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution. March 2, 1965 - A sustained U.S. aerial bombing campaign of North Vietnam begins (Operation Rolling Thunder). March 8, 1965 - The first U.S. combat troops arrive in Vietnam. January 30, 1968 - The North Vietnamese join forces with the Viet Cong to launch the Tet Offensive, attacking approximately one hundred South Vietnamese cities and towns. March 16, 1968 - U.S. soldiers kill hundreds of Vietnamese civilians in the town of Mai Lai. July 1968 - General William Westmoreland, who had been in charge of the U.S. troops in Vietnam, is replaced by General Creighton Abrams. December 1968 - U.S. troops in Vietnam reaches 540,000. July 1969 - President Nixon orders the first of many U.S. troop withdrawals from Vietnam. September 3, 1969 - Communist revolutionary leader Ho Chi Minh dies at age 79. November 13, 1969 - The American public learns of the Mai Lai massacre. April 30, 1970 - President Nixon announces that U.S. troops will attack enemy locations in Cambodia. This news sparks nationwide protests, especially on college campuses. June 13, 1971 - Portions of the Pentagon Papers are published in The New York Times. March 1972 - The North Vietnamese cross the demilitarized zone (DMZ) at the 17th parallel to attack South Vietnam in what became known as the Easter Offensive. January 27, 1973 - The Paris Peace Accords are signed that provide a cease-fire. March 29, 1973 - The last U.S. troops are withdrawn from Vietnam. March 1975 - North Vietnam launches a massive assault on South Vietnam. April 30, 1975 - South Vietnam surrenders to the communists. July 2, 1976 - Vietnam is unified as a communist country, the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. November 13, 1982 - The Vietnam Veterans Memorial in Washington D.C. is dedicated. The Vietnam War occurred in present-day Vietnam, Southeast Asia. It represented a successful attempt on the part of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam, DRV) and the National Front for the Liberation of Vietnam (Viet Cong) to unite and impose a communist system over the entire nation. Opposing the DRV was the Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam, RVN), backed by the United States. The war in Vietnam occurred during the Cold War, and is generally viewed as an indirect conflict between the United States and Soviet Union, with each nation and its allies supporting one side. Causes of the Conflict Photograph Source: Public Domain The Vietnam War first began in 1959, five years after the division of the country by the Geneva Accords. Vietnam had been split into two, with a communist government in the north under Ho Chi Minh and a democratic government in the south under Ngo Dinh Diem. Ho launched a guerilla campaign in South Vietnam, led by Viet Cong units, with the goal of uniting the country under communist rule. The United States, seeking to stop the spread of communism, trained the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) and provided military advisors to help combat the guerillas. Post World War II Vietnam The causes of the Vietnam War trace their roots back to the end of World War II. A French colony, Indochina (Vietnam, Laos, & Cambodia) had been occupied by the Japanese during the war. In 1941, a Vietnamese nationalist movement, the Viet Minh, was formed by Ho Chi Minh to resist the occupiers. A communist, Ho Chi Minh waged a guerilla war against the Japanese with the support of the United States. Near the end of the war, the Japanese began to promote Vietnamese nationalism and ultimately granted the country nominal independence. Following the Japanese defeat, the French returned to take possession of their colony. Their entrance into Vietnam was only permitted by the Viet Minh after assurances had been given that the country would gain independence as part of the French Union. Discussions broke down between the two parties and in December 1946, the French shelled the city of Haiphong and forcibly reentered the capital, Hanoi. These actions began a conflict between the French and the Viet Minh known as the First Indochina War. Fought mainly in North Vietnam, this conflict ended when the French were decisively defeated at Dien Bien Phu in 1954. The war was ultimately settled by the Geneva Accords of 1954, which temporarily partitioned the country at the 17th parallel, with the Viet Minh in control of the north and a non-communist state to be formed in the south under Prime Minister Ngo Dinh Diem. This division was to last until 1956, when national elections would be held to decide the future of the nation. The Politics of American Involvement Initially, the United States had little interest in Vietnam and Southeast Asia, however as it became clear that the post-World War II world would be dominated by the US and its allies and the Soviet Union and theirs, isolating communist movements took an increased importance. These concerns were ultimately formed into the doctrine of containment and domino theory. First spelled out 1947, containment identified that the goal of Communism was to spread to capitalist states and that the only way to stop it was to “contain” it within its present borders. Springing from containment was the concept of domino theory which stated that if one state in a region were to fall to Communism, then the surrounding states would inevitably fall as well. These concepts were to dominate and guide US foreign policy for much of the Cold War. In 1950, to combat the spread of Communism, the United States began supplying the French military in Vietnam with advisors and funding its efforts against the “red” Viet Minh. These efforts continued in 1956, when advisors were provided to train the army of the new Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam). Despite their best efforts, the quality of the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) was to remain consistently poor throughout its existence. Early Life: Born in the village of An Xa on August 25, 1911, Vo Nguyen Giap was the son of Vo Quang Nghiem. At 16, he began attending a French lycée in Hue, but was expelled after two years for organizing a student strike. He later attended the University of Hanoi where he earned degrees in political economy and law. Departing school, he taught history and worked as a journalist until he was arrested in 1930, for supporting student strikes. Released 13 months later, he joined the Communist Party and began protesting against French rule of Indochina. During the 1930s, he resumed work as a writer for several newspapers. Exile & World War II: In 1939, Giap married fellow socialist Nguyen Thi Quang Thai. Their marriage was brief as he was forced to flee to China later that following the French outlawing of communism. While in exile, his wife, father, sister, and sister- in-law were arrested and executed by the French. In China, Giap joined with Ho Chi Minh, the founder of the Vietnamese Independence League (Viet Minh). Between 1944 and 1945, Giap returned to Vietnam to organize guerilla activity against the Japanese. Following the end of the World War II, the Viet Minh was given power by the Japanese to form a provisional government. First Indochina War: In September 1945, Ho Chi Minh proclaimed the Democratic Republic of Vietnam and named Giap as interior minister. The government was short- lived as the French soon returned to take control. Unwilling to recognized Ho Chi Minh's government, fighting soon broke out between the French and the Viet Minh. Given command of the Viet Minh's military, Giap soon found this his men could not defeat the better-equipped French and he ordered a withdrawal to bases in the countryside. With the victory of Mao Zedong's communist forces in China, Giap's situation improved as he gained a new base for training his men. Over the next seven year's Giap's Viet Minh forces successfully drove the French from most of North Vietnam's rural areas, but were unable to take any of the region's towns or cities. At a stalemate, Giap began attacking into Laos, hoping to draw the French into battle on the Viet Minh's terms. With French public opinion swinging against the war, the commander in Indochina, General Henri Navarre, sought a quick victory. To accomplish this he fortified Dien Bien Phu which was situated on the Viet Minh's supply lines to Laos. It was Navarre's goal to draw Giap into a conventional battle where he could be crushed. To deal with the new threat, Giap concentrated all of his forces around Dien Bien Phu and surrounded the French base. On May 13, 1954, his men opened fire with newly obtained Chinese 105mm guns. Surprising the French with artillery fire, the Viet Minh slowly tightened the noose on the isolated French garrison. Over the next 56 days, Giap's troops captured one French position at time until the defenders were compelled to surrender. The victory at Dien Bien Phu effectively ended the First Indochina War. In the ensuing peace accords, the country was partitioned with Ho Chi Minh leading communist North Vietnam. Vietnam War: In the new government, Giap served as minister of defense and commander- in-chief of the People's Army of Vietnam. With the outbreak of hostilities with South Vietnam, and later the United States, Giap led North Vietnam's strategy and command. In 1967, Giap oversaw the planning for the massive Tet Offensive. While initially against a conventional attack, Giap's goals were both military and political. In addition to achieving a military victory, Giap desired the offensive to spark an uprising in South Vietnam and show that American claims about the war's progress were wrong. While the 1968 Tet Offensive proved to be a military disaster for North Vietnam, Giap was able to achieve some of his political objectives. The offensive showed that North Vietnam was far from being defeated and significantly contributed to changing American perceptions about the conflict. Following Tet, peace talks began and the US ultimately withdrew from the war in 1973. Following the American departure, Giap remained in command of North Vietnamese forces and directed General Van Tien Dung and the Ho Chi Minh campaign that finally captured the South Vietnamese capital of Saigon in 1975. Postwar: With Vietnam reunified under Communist rule, Giap remained minister of defense and was promoted to deputy prime minister in 1976. He stayed in these positions until 1980 and 1982 respectively. Now retired, Giap is the author of several military texts including People's Army, People's War and Big Victory, Great Task. The Tet Offensive On January 21, 1968, an intense barrage of artillery hit the US Marine base at Khe Sanh in northwest South Vietnam. This presaged a siege and battle that would last for seventy-seven days and would see 6,000 Marines hold off 20,000 North Vietnamese. Anticipating that American forces would be drawn north to the fighting at Khe Sanh, Viet Cong units broke the traditional Tet (Lunar New Year) cease-fire on January 30, 1968, by launching major attacks against most cities in South Vietnam. For the next two months, US and ARVN forces successfully beat back the Viet Cong assault, with particularly heavy combat in the cities of Hue and Saigon. Once the fighting had ended, the Viet Cong had been permanently crippled and ceased to be an effective fighting force. On April 1, US forces began Operation Pegasus to relieve the Marines at Khe Sanh. After opening the road to Khe Sanh (Route 9) with a mix of air mobile and ground forces, US troops linked up with the besieged Marines on April 8. Aftereffects of Tet While the Tet Offensive proved to be a military victory for the US and ARVN, it was a political and media disaster. Public support began to erode as Americans started to question the handling of the conflict. Others doubted Westmoreland’s ability to command, leading to his replacement in June 1968, by General Creighton Abrams. President Johnson’s popularity plummeted and he withdrew as a candidate for reelection. Ultimately, it was the media’s reaction and stressing of a widening “credibility gap” that did the most damage to the Johnson Administration’s efforts. Noted reporters, such as Walter Cronkite, began to openly criticize Johnson and the military leadership, as well as called for negotiated end to the war. Though he had low expectations, Johnson conceded and opened peace talks with North Vietnam in May 1968. Handing Off the War Campaigning under the slogan “Peace with Honor,” Richard M. Nixon won the 1968 presidential election. His plan called for the “Vietnamization” of the war which was defined as the systematic build up of ARVN forces to the point that they could prosecute the war without American support. As part of this plan, American troops would slowly be removed. Nixon complemented this approach with efforts to ease global tensions by reaching out diplomatically to the Soviet Union and People's Republic of China. In Vietnam, the war shifted to smaller operations geared towards attacking North Vietnamese logistics. Trouble on the Home Front While the antiwar movement in the US was pleased with Nixon’s efforts at détente with communist nations, it was inflamed in 1969, when news broke about a massacre of 347 South Vietnamese civilians by US soldiers at My Lai (March 18, 1968). Tension grew further when, following a change in stance by Cambodia, the US began bombing North Vietnamese bases over the border. This was followed in 1970, with ground forces attacking into Cambodia, a move viewed as expanding the war rather than winding it down. Public opinion sunk lower in 1971 with the release of the Pentagon Papers. A top secret report, the Pentagon Papers detailed American mistakes in Vietnam since 1945, as well as exposed lies about the Gulf of Tonkin Incident, detailed US involvement in deposing Diem, and revealed secret American bombing of Laos. The papers also painted a bleak outlook for American prospects of victory. First Cracks Despite the incursion into Cambodia, Nixon had begun the systematic withdrawal of US forces, lowering troop strength to 156,800 in 1971. That same year, the ARVN commenced Operation Lam Son 719 with the goal of severing the Ho Chi Minh Trail in Laos. In what was seen as a dramatic failure for “Vietnamization,” ARVN forces were routed and driven back across the border. Further cracks were revealed in 1972, when the North Vietnamese launched a conventional invasion of the South, attacking into the northern provinces and from Cambodia. This offensive was only defeated with the support of US airpower (Operation Linebacker). Conflict & Dates: The Battle of Dien Bien Phu was fought from March 13 to May 7, 1954, and was the decisive engagement of the First Indochina War (1946-1954), the precursor to the Vietnam War. Armies & Commanders: French • Brigadier General Christian de Castries • Colonel Pierre Langlais • Major General Rene Cogny • 10,800 men (March 13) Viet Minh • Vo Nguyen Giap • 48,000 men (March 13) Battle of Dien Bien Phu Overview: With the First Indochina War going poorly for the French, Premier Rene Mayer dispatched General Henri Navarre to take command in May 1953. Arriving in Hanoi, Navarre found that no long-term plan existed for defeating the Viet Minh and that French forces simply reacted to the enemy's moves. Believing that he was also tasked with defending neighboring Laos, Navarre sought an effective method for interdicting Viet Minh supply lines through the region. Working with Colonel Louis Berteil, the "hedgehog" concept was developed which called for French troops to establish fortified camps near Viet Minh supply routes. Supplied by air, the hedgehogs would allow French troops to block the Viet Minh's supplies, compelling them to fall back. The concept was largely based on the French success at the Battle of Na San in late 1952. Holding the high ground around a fortified camp at Na San, French forces had repeatedly beaten back assaults by General Vo Nguyen Giap's Viet Minh troops. Navarre believed that the approach used at Na San could be enlarged to force the Viet Minh to commit to a large, pitched battle where superior French firepower could destroy Giap's army. In June 1953, Major General René Cogny first proposed the idea of creating a "mooring point" at Dien Bien Phu in northwest Vietnam. While Cogny had envisioned a lightly defended airbase, Navarre seized on the location for trying the hedgehog approach. Though his subordinates protested, pointing out that unlike Na San they would not hold the high ground around the camp, Navarre persisted and planning moved forward. On November 20, 1953, Operation Castor commenced and 9,000 French troops were dropped into the Dien Bien Phu area over the next three days. With Colonel Christian de Castries in command, they quickly overcame local Viet Minh opposition and began building a series of eight fortified strong points. Given female names, de Castrie's headquarters was located in the center of four fortifications known as Huguette, Dominique, Claudine, and Eliane. To the north, northwest, and northeast were works dubbed Gabrielle, Anne-Marie, and Beatrice, while four miles to the south, Isabelle guarded the base's reserve airstrip. Over the coming weeks, de Castries' garrison increased to 10,800 men supported by artillery and ten M24 Chaffee light tanks. Moving to attack the French, Giap dispatched troops against the fortified camp at Lai Chau, forcing the garrison to flee towards Dien Bien Phu. En route, the Viet Minh effectively destroyed the 2,100-man column and only 185 reached the new base on December 22. Seeing an opportunity at Dien Bien Phu, Giap moved approximately 50,000 men into the hills around the French position, as well as the bulk of his heavy artillery and anti-aircraft guns. The preponderance of Viet Minh guns came as a surprise to the French who did not believe that Giap possessed a large artillery arm. Though Viet Minh shells began falling on the French position on January 31, 1954, Giap did not open the battle in earnest until 5:00 PM on March 13. Utilizing a new moon, Viet Minh forces launched a massive assault on Beatrice behind a heavy barrage of artillery fire. Extensively trained for the operation, Viet Minh troops quickly overcame French opposition and secured the works. A French counterattack the next morning was easily defeated. The next day, artillery fire disabled the French airstrip forcing supplies to be dropped by parachute. That evening, Giap sent two regiments from the 308th Division against Gabrielle. Battling Algerian troops, they fought through the night. Hoping to relieve the beleaguered garrison, de Castries launched a counterattack north, but with little success. By 8:00 AM on March 15, the Algerians were forced to retreat. Two days later, Anne-Maries was easily taken when the Viet Minh were able to convince the T'ai (a Vietnamese ethnic minority loyal to the French) soldiers manning it to defect. Though the next two weeks saw a lull in fighting, the French command structure was in tatters. Despairing over the early defeats, de Castries secluded himself in his bunker and Colonel Pierre Langlais effectively took command of the garrison. During this time, Giap tightened his lines around the four central French fortifications. On March 30, after cutting off Isabelle, Giap began a series of assaults on the eastern bastions of Dominique and Eliane. Achieving a foothold in Dominique, the Viet Minh's advance was stopped by concentrated French artillery fire. Fighting raged in Dominique and Eliane through April 5, with the French desperately defending and counterattacking. Pausing, Giap shifted trench warfare and attempted to isolate each French position. Over the next several days, fighting continued with heavy losses on both sides. With his men's morale sinking, Giap was forced to call for reinforcements from Laos. While the battle raged on the eastern side, Viet Minh forces succeeded in penetrating Huguette and by April 22 had captured 90% of the air strip. This made resupply, which had been difficult due to heavy anti-aircraft fire, next to impossible. Between May 1 and May 7, Giap renewed his assault and succeeded in overrunning the defenders. Fighting to the end, the last French resistance ended by nightfall on May 7. Aftermath A disaster for the French, losses at Dien Bien Phu numbered 2,293 killed, 5,195 wounded, and 10,998 captured. Viet Minh casualties are estimated at around 23,000. The defeat at Dien Bien Phu marked the end of the First Indochina War and spurred peace negotiations which were ongoing in Geneva. The resulting 1954 Geneva Accords partitioned the country at the 17th Parallel and created a communist state in the north and a democratic state in the south. The resulting conflict between these two regimes ultimately grew into the Vietnam War. General • Length: 159 ft. 4 in. • Wingspan: 185 ft. • Height: 40 ft. 8 in. • Wing Area: 4,000 sq. ft. • Empty Weight: 185,000 lbs. • Loaded Weight: 265,000 lbs. • Crew: 5 (pilot, copilot, radar navigator (bombardier), navigator, and electronic warfare officer) Performance • Power Plant: 8 × Pratt & Whitney TF33-P-3/103 turbofans • Combat Radius: 4,480 miles • Max Speed: 650 mph • Ceiling: 50,000 ft. Armament • Guns: 1 × 20 mm M61 Vulcan cannon (remote controlled tail turret) • Bombs/Missiles: 60,000 lbs. of bombs, missiles, & mines in numerous configurations B-52 Stratofortress Design & Development: On November 23, 1945, only weeks after the end of World War II, the US Air Material Command issued performance specifications for a new long-range, nuclear bomber. Calling for a cruising speed of 300 mph and a combat radius of 5,000 miles, AMC invited bids the following February from Martin, Boeing, and Consolidated. Developing the Model 462, a straight-wing bomber powered by six turboprops, Boeing was able to win the competition despite the fact that the aircraft's range fell short of the specifications. Moving forward, Boeing was issued a contract on June 28, 1946, to build a mock-up of the new XB-52 bomber. Over the next year, Boeing was forced to change the design several times as the US Air Force first showed concern over the XB-52's size and then increased the required cruising speed. By June 1947, the USAF realized that when complete the new aircraft would nearly be obsolete. While the project was put on hold, Boeing continued to refine their latest design. That September, the Heavy Bombardment Committee issued new performance requirements demanding 500 mph and an 8,000-mile range, both of which were far beyond Boeing's latest design. Lobbying hard, the president of Boeing, William McPherson Allen, was able to prevent their contract from being terminated. Coming to an accord with the USAF, Boeing was instructed to begin exploring recent technological advances with an eye to incorporating them into the XB-52 program. Moving forward, Boeing presented a new design in April 1948, but was told the next month that the new aircraft should incorporate jet engines. After swapping out turboprops for jets on their Model 464-40, Boeing was ordered to design a completely new aircraft utilizing the Pratt & Whitney J57 turbojet on October 21, 1948. A week later, Boeing engineers first tested the design that would become the basis for the final aircraft. Possessing 35-degree swept wings, the new XB-52 design was powered by eight engines placed in four pods under the wings. During testing, concerns arose regarding the fuel consumption of the engines, however the commander of the Strategic Air Command, General Curtis LeMay insisted the program move forward. Two prototypes were built and the first flew on April 15, 1952, with famed test pilot Alvin "Tex" Johnston at the controls. Pleased with the result, the USAF placed an order for 282 aircraft. Operational History: Entering operational service in 1955, the B-52B Stratofortress replaced the Convair B-36. During its initial years of service, several minor issues arose with the aircraft and the J57 engines experienced reliability problems. A year later, the B-52 dropped its first hydrogen bomb during testing at Bikini Atoll. On January 16–18, 1957, the USAF demonstrated the bomber's reach by having three B-52s fly non-stop around the world. As additional aircraft were built, numerous changes and modifications were made. In 1963, the Strategic Air Command fielded a force of 650 B-52s. With the US entry into the Vietnam War, the B-52 saw its first combat missions as part of Operations Rolling Thunder (March 1965) and Arc Light (June 1965). Later that year, several B-52Ds underwent "Big Belly" modifications to facilitate the aircraft's use in carpet bombing. Flying from bases in Guam, Okinawa, and Thailand, B-52s were able to unleash devastating firepower on their targets. It was not until November 22, 1972, that the first B-52 was lost to enemy fire when an aircraft was downed by a surface-to-air missile. The B-52's most notable role in Vietnam was during Operation Linebacker II in December 1972, when waves of bombers struck targets across North Vietnam. During the war, 18 B-52s were lost to enemy fire and 13 to operational causes. While many B-52s saw action over Vietnam, the aircraft continued to fulfill its nuclear deterrence role. B-52s routinely flew airborne alert missions to provide a rapid first strike or retaliation capability in case of war with the Soviet Union. These missions ended in 1966, following the collision of a B-52 and a KC-135 over Spain. [...]... during the Vietnam War Dates: US forces were engaged in the A Shau Valley from May 10 to May 20, 1969 Armies & Commanders: United States Major General Melvin Zais approx 1,800 men North Vietnam Unknown approx 1,500 men Summary of the Battle of Hamburger Hill: In 1969, US troops began Operation Apache Snow with the goal of clearing the People's Army of Vietnam from the A Shau Valley in South Vietnam Located... by the 101st's abandonment of the hill on June 5 As a result of this public and political pressure, General Creighton Abrams altered US • • • • • strategy in Vietnam from one of "maximum pressure" to "protective reaction" in an effort to lower casualties Conflict: The Battle of Dak To was a major engagement of the Vietnam War Dates: Fought over nineteen days, the Battle of Dak To lasted from November... Commanders: US & Republic of Vietnam Major General William R Peers 16,000 men North Vietnam & Viet Cong General Hoang Minh Thao Tran The Mon 6,000 men Battle Summary: In the summer of 1967, the People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) initiated a series of attacks in western Kontum Province To counter these, Major General William R Peers commenced Operation Greeley using elements of the 4th Infantry Division... Province and decimated the regiments of the 1st PAVN Division One of the "border battles" of late 1967, the Battle of Dak To did accomplish a key PAVN objective as US forces began to move out from cities and lowlands By January 1968, half of all US combat units were operating away from these key areas Conflict: The Siege of Khe Sanh occurred during the Vietnam War Armies & Commanders: Allies General... Lownds approx 6,000 men North Vietnamese Vo Nguyen Giap Tran Quy Hai approx 20,000-30,000 men Dates: The fighting around Khe Sanh began January 21, 1968 and concluded around April 8, 1968 Battle of Khe Sanh Overview: In the summer of 1967, American commanders learned of a build-up of People's Army of North Vietnam (PAVN) forces in the area around Khe Sanh in northwest South Vietnam Responding to this,... attacks The worst of these took place on November 12, when rockets and shellfire destroyed several aircraft as well as detonated the base's ammunition and fuel depots In addition to the American forces, Army of Vietnam (ARVN) units also took part in the battle, seeing action around Hill 1416 The last major engagement of the Battle of Dak To began on November 19, when the 2nd Battalion of the 503rd Airborne... from occurring As a result, B-52Gs and B-52Hs remained a part of the Strategic Air Command's nuclear standby force until 1991 With the collapse of the Soviet Union, the B-52G was removed from service and the aircraft destroyed as part of the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty With the launch of the coalition air campaign during the 1991 Gulf War, the B-52H returned to combat service Flying from bases in... departed By the end of November, the PAVN forces around Dak To were so battered that they were withdrawn back across the border ending the battle Aftermath: A victory for the Americans and South Vietnamese, the Battle of Dak To cost 376 US killed, 1,441 US wounded, and 79 ARVN killed PAVN casualties are estimated between 1,000 to 1,445 killed The Battle of Dak To saw US forces drive the North Vietnamese from... fierce PAVN resistance As they moved around the hill, they found that the North Vietnamese had constructed an elaborate system of bunkers and trenches Seeing the focus of the battle shifting to Hill 937, Conmey shifted the 1/506th to the south side of the hill Bravo Company was airlifted to the area, but the remainder of the battalion traveled by foot and did not arrive in force until May 19 On May... this would lead to the further deployment of American troops to the border regions which would leave South Vietnam' s cities and lowlands vulnerable To deal with this build up of PAVN forces, Peers launched Operation MacArthur on November 3 Peer's understanding of the enemy's intentions and strategy was greatly enhanced on November 3, following the defection of PAVN Sgt Vu Hong Alerted to each PAVN unit's . American War in Vietnam, Vietnam Conflict, Second Indochina War, War Against the Americans to Save the Nation Overview of the Vietnam War: Ho Chi Minh Comes Home There had been fighting in Vietnam. public's support for the war. Since the end of the war, the Vietnam War has become a benchmark for what not to do in all future U.S. foreign conflicts. Dates of the Vietnam War: 1959 April 30,. combat the guerillas. Post World War II Vietnam The causes of the Vietnam War trace their roots back to the end of World War II. A French colony, Indochina (Vietnam, Laos, & Cambodia) had