NUCLEAR ENERGY Springer New York Berlin Heidelberg Hong Kong London Milan Paris Tokyo NUCLEAR ENERGY PRINCIPLES, PRACTICES, AND PROSPECTS SECOND EDITION David Bodansky With 47 Figures Springer David Bodansky Department of Physics University of Washington Seattle, WA 98195 USA Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Bodansky, David Nuclear energy : principles, practices, and prospects / David Bodansky.—2nd ed p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 0-387-20778-3 (hc : alk paper) Nuclear engineering I Title TK9145.B54 2003 2003070772 333.792 4—dc22 ISBN 0-387-20778-3 Printed on acid-free paper c 2004, 1996 Springer-Verlag New York, LLC AIP Press is an imprint of Springer-Verlag New York, LLC All rights reserved This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the written permission of the publisher (Springer-Verlag New York, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, LLC, NY 10010, USA), except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis Use in connection with any form of information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed is forbidden The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks, and similar terms, even if they are not identified as such, is not to be taken as an expression of opinion as to whether or not they are subject to proprietary rights Printed in the United States of America (ING/MVY) SPIN 10939710 Springer-Verlag is a part of Springer Science+Business Media springeronline.com Preface to the Second Edition This second edition represents an extensive revision of the first edition, although the motivation for the book and the intended audiences, as described in the previous preface, remain the same The overall length has been increased substantially, with revised or expanded discussions of a number of topics, including Yucca Mountain repository plans, new reactor designs, health effects of radiation, costs of electricity, and dangers from terrorism and weapons proliferation The overall status of nuclear power has changed rather little over the past eight years Nuclear reactor construction remains at a very low ebb in much of the world, with the exception of Asia, while nuclear power’s share of the electricity supply continues to be about 75% in France and 20% in the United States However, there are signs of a heightened interest in considering possible nuclear growth In the late 1990s, the U.S Department of Energy began new programs to stimulate research and planning for future reactors, and many candidate designs are now contending—at least on paper—to be the next generation leaders Outside the United States, the commercial development of the Pebble Bed Modular Reactor is being pursued in South Africa, a FrenchGerman consortium has won an order from Finland for the long-planned EPR (European Pressurized Water Reactor), and new reactors have been built or planned in Asia In an unanticipated positive development for nuclear energy, the capacity factor of U.S reactors has increased dramatically in recent years, and most operating reactors now appear headed for 20-year license renewals In a negative development, the German and Dutch governments have announced plans to phase out nuclear power and Sweden continues its earlier, but considerably delayed, program to the same Further, it remains unlikely that private U.S companies will find it financially prudent to order new reactors without incentives from the federal government Significant uncertainties remain in important areas, including the fate of the Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository project, the degree to which v vi Preface to the Second Edition the U.S government will act to further the construction new reactors, the outcome of on-going debates on the effects of low doses of ionizing radiation, and the extent to which nuclear weapons proliferation and nuclear terrorism can be restrained In the broader energy picture, concern about climate change caused by fossil fuel combustion has intensified, with increased interest in the potential of sequestering carbon dioxide after it is produced and in finding alternatives to fossil fuels Given the uncertainties facing nuclear energy, including the overriding uncertainty as to the extent that it may expand or contract, a new look at its current status seems warranted This book seeks to provide background for considering the role that nuclear energy might play in addressing the overall energy dilemmas facing the United States and other countries throughout the world It also briefly discusses alternatives to nuclear energy, without attempting a comparative evaluation of the competing, or complementary, possibilities The preface to the first edition stated the hope that “the book will be useful to readers with a wide variety of backgrounds who have an interest in nuclear energy matters.” This was meant to include readers with technical backgrounds and those without such backgrounds With the latter readership in mind, the somewhat mathematically oriented material has been slightly reduced for this edition I hope that where uncongenial equations are found (now mostly confined to Chapter 7), readers will be able to skip over them without too much loss of basic content Again, I am indebted to many individuals, at the University of Washington and elsewhere, for much appreciated help The debts that were acknowledged in the first edition remain For this edition, assistance from a number of additional individuals calls for special mention Robert Albrecht, at the University of Washington, has read and discussed many parts of the book with me, and has given me the benefit of his deep understanding of nuclear matters Robert and Susan Vandenbosch, also in Seattle, have reviewed virtually the entire manuscript and have made numerous helpful suggestions Edwin Kolbe, the Project Manager for Radioactive Materials at the Swiss National Cooperative for the Disposal of Radioactive Waste (NAGRA) and a 2002 visitor at the Institute for Nuclear Theory at the University of Washington, kindly offered to carry out ORIGEN calculations that give the yield of radionuclides in “typical” spent fuel Abraham Van Luik, with the Yucca Mountain Project, has provided valuable help in elucidating the DOE’s planning and analyses for the project Many other colleagues have read drafts of one or more chapters and I am grateful to them for their comments on those chapters, and in many cases, on other aspects of the book I here thank: Chaim Braun, Bernard Cohen, Stanley Curtis, J Gregory Dash, David Hafemeister, Isaac Halpern, Robert Halvorsen, William Sailor, Luther Smith, and Gene Woodruff I also am grateful to Edward Gerjuoy, Phillip Malte, Jeffrey Schneble, and Donald Umstadter for comments on the first edition Preface to the Second Edition vii It is not possible to give a full listing of all the other individuals who have assisted me with information, advice, and documents In this regard, in addition to those acknowledged above and in the first edition, I want at least to thank Joseph Beamon, James Beard, Mario Carelli, Yoon Chang, Raymond Clark, Paul Craig, George Davis, Herbert Ellison, Rodney Ewing, Tom Ferriera, Steve Fetter, Brittain Hill, Mark Jacobson, John Kessler, Kristian Kunert, Edward Miles, Thomas Murley, Richard Poeton, Jerome Puskin, Lowell Ralston, Stanley Ritterbusch, Finis Southworth, John Taylor, Ronald Vijuk, David Wade, Kevan Weaver, Ruth Weiner, Bruce Whitehead, Bertram Wolfe, and Joseph Ziegler Again, as in the first edition, my thanks and apologies are extended to the many others, not named above, who have generously given me their help I appreciate the willingness of the University of Washington and the Department of Physics to provide space, facilities, and a congenial working environment Finally, again, I wish to thank my wife, Beverly, for her patience and support during the long continuation of an effort that seemed at times to belie the concept of retirement Seattle, Washington May 2004 David Bodansky Preface to the First Edition This book has evolved from notes prepared for students in a physics course designed to cover the major aspects of energy production and consumption About one-third of the course dealt with nuclear energy, and the notes for that segment were revised and expanded for the present book The course assumed that the students had at least one year of collegelevel physics, thus permitting the inclusion of some technical discussions The present book, in its occasional use of equations and technical terminology, somewhat reflects the nature of that original audience Readers with relatively little background in physics and engineering may find it useful to refer to the Appendix on “Elementary Aspects of Nuclear Physics,” and to the Glossary I have sometimes been asked: “For whom is the book written?” One difficulty in addressing this question has already been touched on Some of the technical discussions include equations, which is not customary in a book for a “lay audience.” Other parts are more elementary than would be the case were this a textbook on nuclear engineering Nonetheless, most of the key issues can be constructively discussed using little or no mathematical terminology, and I therefore hope that the book will be useful to readers with a wide variety of backgrounds who have an interest in nuclear energy matters A more fundamental difficulty lies in the fact that such interest is now at a low ebb In fact, it is often believed that the era of nuclear fission energy has passed, or is passing While most informed people are aware that France is highly dependent on nuclear energy, this is ignored as an aberration, holding little broader significance It is not widely realized that nuclear energy, despite its stagnancy in the United States and most of Europe, is expanding rapidly in Asia Further, many people who are otherwise well-informed on issues of public policy are surprised to learn that the United States now obtains more than 20% of its electricity from nuclear power This book has been written in the belief that it is premature and probably incorrect to assume that there is to be only one era of nuclear power and that this era has passed The future pattern of nuclear energy use will depend on developments in a variety of energy technologies and on public attitudes ix x Preface to the First Edition in differing countries There can be little certainly as to how these developments will unfold However, the demands of a growing world economy and the pressures of declining availability of oil will inevitably force a realignment and reassessment of energy options The goal of this book is to provide basic information to those who want to gain, or refresh, an introductory familiarity with nuclear power, even before broad new reassessments of energy policy are made in the United States and elsewhere The preparation of the book has been aided by contributions from many individuals Among these, I would like especially to acknowledge three Since I first became interested in energy issues some twenty years ago and continuing until his death in 1991, my understanding of these issues and of nuclear energy in particular benefited greatly from discussions and collaborative writing with my colleague Fred Schmidt Over the years, I have also gained much from the wisdom of Alvin Weinberg, who has made unique contributions to nuclear energy and its literature and, most recently, has very kindly read and commented on much of this manuscript I am also grateful to Peter Zimmerman who served the publisher as an anonymous reviewer of a preliminary draft of this book and who subsequently, anonymity discarded, has been a very constructive critic of a revised draft In addition, I am heavily indebted to many other individuals at the University of Washington, in government agencies, in industry, and elsewhere Some have been generous in aiding with information and insights, some have commented on various chapters as the book has evolved, and some have done both Without attempting to distinguish among these varied contributions, I particularly wish to thank Mark Abhold, Thomas Bjerdstedt, Robert Budnitz, Thomas Buscheck, J Gregory Dash, Kermit Garlid, Ronald Geballe, Marc Gervais, Emil Glueckler, Lawrence Goldmuntz, Isaac Halpern, Charles Hyde-Wright, William Kreuter, Jerrold Leitch, Norman McCormick, Thomas Murley, James Quinn, Maurice Robkin, Margaret Royan, Mark Savage, Jean Savy, Fred Silady, Bernard Spinrad, Ronald Vijuk, and Gene Woodruff This list is far from exhaustive and I extend my thanks and apologies to the many others whom I have failed to mention I am also grateful to the University of Washington and the Department of Physics for making it possible for me to teach the courses and devote the time necessary for the development of this book Finally, I must express my appreciation to my wife, Beverly, for her support and encouragement as the book progressed Index moratoria, 574 tax credits, 572, 574 tax on carbon, 569, 574–575 historic costs, 566–569 non-nuclear sources coal, 567–571, 585 hydroelectric, 567 natural gas, 567–571 wind, 570 nuclear power, special issues capacity factor, 41, 569 construction time, 569 decentralization, 561–562 federal support need, 572–574 reactor longevity, 575–576 “too cheap to meter,” 31–33 uranium costs, 221–226 role of costs in decisions, 571–572 Electromagnetic separation, 201 Electron capture, 635 Electron, mass and charge, 621, 622 Electron volt, 123, 623 Elements, list of, 643 Emergency core cooling systems See Reactor safety measures Energy conservation, 590, 610 Energy Policy Act, 564, 572, 574 Energy release in fission per fission event, 149–151 per unit uranium mass, 210–212 ERDA, 293 Energy sources and consumption, 1–4 Energy states, 626–628 Energy units, 623, 642 Enhancement factor, fast neutrons, 157 Enrichment of uranium, 198–204 energy required, 203–204 enrichment levels, 174, 199, 491 methods, 200–202 national programs, 202 separative work, 202–204 uranium grades, 491 weapon proliferation, 524–525 Environmental movement, 613 Environmentalists for Nuclear Energy, 613 Environmental Protection Agency general standards, 86, 105–107 nuclear waste standards 679 responsibility for, 293–294, 296 carbon-14, 340–342, 345, 363 40CFR191, 339–342, 364 40CFR197, 303, 344–347, 364 risk estimates low doses, 91, 102–103 neptunium-237, 115–118, 246 radionuclide intake, 108–110 η (eta), in neutron absorption, 155–158 Eskom, 460, 461 European PWR (EPR), 47, 442, 447 ESBWR, 442, 447, 452 Event trees in PRAs, 385–388 EBR-I, 190, 412 EBR-II, 190, 220, 467, 469 Exposure, 58–59 See also Radiation dose ExternE studies, 560, 575 Extraterrestrial disposal, 284 Fast neutron reactors, 172, 188–191, 471–472, 475 See also Breeder reactors, Liquid-metal fast reactors Fault trees in PRAs, 385–388 Feiveson, Harold, 544, 590 Fermi, Enrico, 27, 29, 140, 154, 167, 460 Fermi I reactor, 179, 412–413 Fertile and fissile nuclei, 143, 157 Fetter, Steve, 507, 509 Finland new reactor, 46–47, 52, 600 nuclear wastes, 285, 286 Fissile material See also Weapon programs and proliferation for bombs, 482–483 for reactors, 141–143, 173–174 Fission See also Neutron reactions, Chain reaction accelerator-driven, 283, 476–477 conditions for fissionability, 141–143 cross sections, 127–136, 143–144, 157 delayed neutrons, 147–148, 163–164 discovery of, 139–140 emitted neutrons, 146–148, 154 energy release, 149–151, 210–212 liquid drop model, 140 nuclear and Coulomb forces, 141 in nucleosynthesis, 67 680 Index Fission (continued ) photofission, 143 spontaneous, 492–293 symmetric and asymmetric, 144–146 Fission fragments, 125 mass distribution, 144–146 radioactive decay, 148–149 Fixed charge rate, 565 Ford Foundation study, 216, 503 Ford, Gerald, 503 Forsberg, Charles, 452 Fort St Vrain reactor, 38–39, 179, 460, 461 Fossil fuels CO2 from See Greenhouse gases costs, 567–572 dominance of, 2, 579 as electricity source, 6, 583–585 replacement of, 15–21 resources, 7–11 Foulke, Larry, 573, 603 France energy budgets, 3, 18–19 nuclear power, 18–19, 42–45, 47–48 carbon dioxide reduction, 18–19 electricity generation, 18–19, 25 growth rate, 18–19, 597–598 mixed-oxide fuel use, 217 reactors, 48, 176–178, 190, 442 reprocessing, 194, 214–217, 274 uranium enrichment, 202 waste handling, 254, 286–287 nuclear weapons, 42, 79, 522, 525, 528–529 nuclear-weapon state, NPT, 518 Frisch, Otto, 140 Front end of fuel cycle See Fuel cycle Fuel See Reactor fuel Fuel cycle, 193–196 See also Enrichment, Reprocessing, Nuclear waste, Thorium-uranium fuel cycle alternative fuel cycles, 194, 226 back end, 213–220 front end, 195–205 fuel utilization, 205–213 and proliferation, 195, 216, 220, 441, 497–498, 548–549 uranium requirements, 212 waste reduction, 441, 599 Fuel rods, 185 Fusion energy, 15, 475–476, 589 Gamma ray emission, 635–636 Gamma rays, 58, 631 as low-LET radiation, 60 from fission fragments, 148, 151 Garwin, Richard, 226, 517, 528 Gas, natural See Natural gas Gas-Cooled Fast Reactor, 471, 475 Gas-cooled reactors future reactors See HTGRs past problems, 460–461 present use, 177–178 Gaseous diffusion, 200, 202, 527 General Accounting Office, 295 General Atomics, 460 General Electric, 215, 449–451, 452 Generation cost See Electricity costs Generation-III reactors, 444–445 Generation-IV reactors See Reactors, future Genetic effects of radiation, 104–105 Geologic disposal of wastes, 266–278 See also Yucca Mountain deep-borehole disposal, 277 host rocks, 267–269 international approaches, 277–278 multiple barriers, 266–267, 304–305 saturated and unsaturated zones, 267 thermal loading See Thermal output transport of radionuclides, 269–272, 311 worldwide plans, 220, 266, 285–287 Geothermal power, 6, 585–586 Germany HTGR experience, 461 nuclear power, 44–45, 51, 181 nuclear waste handling, 268, 286 Global climate change See Greenhouse gases Gold, Thomas, Grand Gulf reactor, 184 Granite, for waste repository, 268 Graphite, properties as moderator, 160–161, 175, 187–188 Graphite-moderated reactors See also HTGRs Index history, 29, 33, 177–180, 460–461 graphite burning, 412, 463–464 plutonium production, 188, 499–501 Gray, 59–60 Greenhouse gases alternatives to fossil fuels, 14–17, 585–589 carbon tax, 569, 574–575 CO2 from fossil fuels, 7, 10–12 effects on climate, 12–13 natural gas substitution, 12, 583 reductions in France, 18–19 sequestration of CO2 , 583–585 U.S sources of CO2 , 13–14 Hahn, Otto, 140 Half-life, 63–64, 636–637 Hall, David, 586 Hanford N reactor, 38, 171, 180, 423 Hanford reservation iodine-131 releases, 79 nuclear wastes, 215, 232, 297 plutonium production, 29–30, 527 Health hazards of radiation See Radiation effects Health Physics Society, 91 Heavy water, 161, 174–175 Heavy water reactors, 33, 177–180, 188, 447 Helium, as coolant, 175 High-LET radiation, 60–62 High-level waste See Nuclear waste High-temperature gas-cooled reactors See also Graphite Moderated Reactors advantages of high T, 459–460, 593 gas-cooled fast reactor, 475 GT-MHR, 447, 460, 463, 464–466 PBMRs, 447, 460, 463, 466 safety aspects, 462–464 Hill, John, 338 Hinderstein, Corey, 538 Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombing bomb characteristics, 482, 527 effects, 86–91, 485 Holloway, Sam, 584 Homogeneous reactors, 172–173 Hormesis, 96, 98–100, 114 Houghton, John, 13 681 Hubbert, M King, 8–9 Human body, natural radioactivity, 76–77 Hydroelectric power, 2, 6, 587 Hydrogen, as moderator, 160–161, 174 Hydrogen, as fuel production electricity used, 591, 595 methods, 585, 591–593 nuclear energy for, 471–472, 591, 593, 595 supergrid proposal, 595 use as fuel, 593–595 Hydrogen bombs, 484 Hydrogen explosion danger, 417–418 Idaho Falls accident See SL-1 INEEL, 382, 460 Independent power producers, 562 India energy consumption, nuclear power, 46, 52, 178–180, 190 nuclear treaties, 519–522, 531 nuclear weapons, 526, 530–531 reprocessing plants, 217, 530 Indian Point reactors, 33, 39 Indian Tribes, wastes, 259, 295, 296 Indoor radon See Radon-222 Inelastic scattering, 124, 188 Institute for Science and International Security, 525–526 INPO, 393, 401 Integral Fast Reactor, 190, 220, 284, 467–468, 549 IPCC, 12–13 Interim storage of spent fuel See Spent fuel, storage International Atomic Energy Agency Chernobyl studies, 422, 430, 434 desalination, 591–592, 595–596 establishment of, 517 INSAG, 393, 407, 422 nuclear waste policy, 352 proliferation, 520, 534–541, 549, 554, 600 safety issues, 375, 393, 407, 414 world reactor lists, 26, 177–178 International Chernobyl Project, 434 682 Index ICRP recommendations neptunium hazards, 116–118 Publication 60 (1990), 61–62, 91, 95, 101–102 publications, other, 85, 100, 105, 111 International Energy Agency, 449 IIASA, 224–225, 589–591 INTD, 448 IRIS, 445, 447, 456–459 Iodine-131, releases Hanford reservation, 79 reactor accidents Chernobyl, 378, 425–426, 428–429 predicted, 383 TMI, 378, 419 Windscale, 412 Ionizing radiation See also Radiation dose, Radiation effects discovery, 57–58 high-and low-LET, 60–61 Iran, nuclear programs, 46, 53, 523 537–539 Iraq, nuclear weapons, 536–537 Isobars, 620 Isomeric states, 635 Isotopes, 620–621 Isotopic abundances, specification, 199, 625 Israel bombing of Osirak reactor, 536–537 nuclear treaties, 519, 520, 521, 522 nuclear weapons, 526, 533–534 Italy, nuclear power, 45 Japan See also Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombing energy consumption, nuclear power, 43–46 nuclear weapons potential, 498, 523 reactors, 176–178, 181, 442, 449, 461 reprocessing, 49, 216, 217, 498 Tokaimura accident, 414 waste handling, 286 Jaworowski, Zbigniew, 99 Johnson, Bennett, 342 Joliot, Fr´d´ric, 28–29, 154 e e Joliot-Curie, Irene, 28 Kadak, Andrew, 462, 464 Kazakhstan nuclear power, 50, 90 nuclear weapons, 527, 528, 541 Keith, David, 584 Kemeny, John, 415 Kemeny report, 414–415, 417–419 Khan, Abdul Quadeer, 532–533 Kiloton, as bomb yield unit, 484–485 Kneese, Allen, 337–338 Koonin, Steven, 511 Krauskopf, Konrad, 271 Lackner, Klaus, 585 Larson, Eric, 586 Laser enrichment, 201, 202 Lash, Terry, 364 LLNL, 309, 395, 397–398 Lead Cooled Fast Reactor, 471 Lee, Chang Kun, 604–605 Lewis, Harold, 391 Levelized cost, 569 Libya, weapons program, 525, 532–533, 542 Licenses See Nuclear Regulatory Commission, licensing Lidsky, Lawrence, 464 Light water, 161, 174 Light water reactors, 33 See also BWRs and PWRs conversion ratio, 165 dominance of, 177–180 spent fuel from, 208–210, 236–244 types evolutionary, 445–447, 449–452 innovative, 446–447, 452–459 present LWRs, 177–179, 181–186 uranium requirements, 211–212 void coefficient in, 380 Linear energy transfer, 60 Linearity See Radiation effects Liquid-metal fast reactors See also Breeder reactors, Monju, Phenix, Seawolf, Superphenix ALMR, 467–469 EBR-II tests, 190, 220, 467, 469 Fast flux test reactor, 190, 468 Integral Fast Reactor, 190, 220, 284, 467–468 Index plutonium destruction, 189–190, 553 terrorists and 239 Pu, 189 void coefficient, 380–381 world programs, 177–178, 189–191, 449 Liquid-metal thermal breeder, 173 Lithuania, nuclear power, 50, 421 Logarithmic energy decrement, 159–160 Long Island Lighting Company, 563 LANL, 309, 476–477 Loss-of-coolant accidents See Reactor accidents Louisiana Energy Services, 202 Lovins, Amory, 607–608, 611 Low-level wastes, 233 Lucens (Switzerland) accident, 413 Luckey, T.D., 99 Lyman, Edwin, 464 Lyons (Kansas) waste site, 292–293 MacGregor, Ian, 224 MacKenzie, James, 10 Magnox reactor, 178, 179 Magwood, William, 443 Malia, Martin, 436 Mark, J Carson, 492–495 Mass, atomic units of, 621–622 Mass-energy equivalence, 623–624 Mass excess, 624 Massachusetts Institute of Technology The Future of Nuclear Power, 219 277, 548, 570–571 Pebble bed reactor, 460 McCloskey, Michael, 358 McCombie, Charles, 361 Mean free path, 127 Mean life, 63–64, 636–637 Meitner, Lise, 140 Mescalero Apache tribe, 259 Mexico, nuclear power, 52 Miles, Edward, 280–281 Military nuclear wastes, 231–235 Mill, John Stuart, 608 Mill tailings, 197–198 Minnesota, dry storage, 255 Minor actinides, 193 Mixed-oxide fuel, 194, 205, 216–218 548, 553-554 683 Moderating ratio, 160–161 Moderation materials for, 29, 159–161, 174–175 thermalization, 134 155, 158–161 Mole, 622 Molten-salt reactor, 172–173, 471 Monitored retrievable storage, 257–260 Monju fast reactor, 178, 190 Monte Carlo method, 314–315 Morris reprocessing plant, 215 Mozley, Robert, 517 Multiple barriers, 266–267, 304, 307, 320 Multiplication factor See Effective multiplication factor Musharraf, Pervez, 533 Napier, Bruce, 116 NAPA, 348–349 National Academy studies National Research Council, 85, 294, 342 nuclear power options, 447 nuclear wastes, 294 geologic disposal, 246–247, 269, 292 policy, 339, 352, 354–355, 359–362, transmutation, 282–284 Yucca Mountain, 342–344, 346 plutonium, 489, 495, 552–554 radiation effects See BEIR reports terrorism, 504–506, 509, 511–514 NCRP reports, 59, 85 No 90, neptunium, 116–117 No 92, nuclear exposure, 79 No 93, population exposure, 59, 74–75, 78, 80, 113 No 94, natural exposure, 76 No 115, risk estimates, 102, 104–105 No 116, exposure limitation, 62, 103, 104 No 126, uncertainties, 89, 102–103 No 136, LNT model, 86, 93, 95, 99, 103, 115 No 138, terrorism, 486, 504, 510 National Reactor Testing Laboratory, 412 National Research Council See National Academy studies NRDC, 342, 488, 525 684 Index Natural gas CO2 production, 7, 11–12, 583 costs, 567–571 as energy source, 2, 6–8, 563, 583 resources, 7–11 Natural radioactivity See Radioactivity Near-Term Deployment Group, 445 Near-Term Roadmap, 445–447, 463, 565, 569, 575 Neptunium, 619 Neptunium-237, 115–118, 239–241, 246, 319 Neptunium-239, 125 Neutrinos, 151, 633–634 Neutron lifetime, in reactor, 162–163 Neutron reactions, 123–136 capture, 124–125, 127–128 fission, 125, 127–136, 143–144 in nucleosynthesis, 66–67 thermal neutrons, 135–137, 157–158 Neutron resonances, 128–132 Neutrons basic properties, 139, 620, 622 biological effects of, 60–62 delayed, 147–148, 163–164, 379 emission in fission, 146–148, 154 thermal, 134–136 thermalization, 158–161 New Mexico MRS facility, 259 WIPP facility, 233, 268 Noble gas releases, 185 Noddack, Ida, 140 Non-Proliferation Treaty history, 518–522, 542–543, 549–550 NWSs, 518, 526 non-NWSs, 518, 541 non-signatories, 519, 520, 521–522, 526 Non-utility generators, 561–562 North Korea nuclear programs, 53, 523, 525, 526, 534–536 nuclear treaties, 517, 519, 521–522, 534–536 ν (nu), neutrons per fission, 146, 154 Nuclear accidents See Reactor accidents, Chernobyl, TMI Nuclear binding energy, 625–626, 629–630 Nuclear bombs See Weapons Nuclear chain reaction See Chain reaction Nuclear Energy Agency reports, 279–280, 348–349, 374, 388, 393, 449 Nuclear energy, general issues as substitute for oil and coal, 10–11, 14–21, 365–366, 550–551, 607 attitudes towards, 18, 20–22, 612–613 early speculations about, 27–29 utilization of See also individual countries historic, 18–20, 27–30, 42–45 present, 25–26 potential, 45–47, 597–599 projections, past, 53–54, 601–602, 614–615 Nuclear Energy Institute, 41 Nuclear Energy Maturity, 614–615 Nuclear energy prospects, 613–614 alternatives, 579–589, 610–611, 613 constituencies, 612–613 costs, 569–572 electricity demand, 582, 589–590 federal role, 572–575, 602–603 potential demand, 590–597 proliferation issues, 580–581, 605–607 regional differences, 600–605, 611–612 social issues material development, 607–608 political orientation, 580, 582, 613 world population, 608–610 technical success, 580–581 NERAC, 36, 444 NERI, 35–36, 444 Nuclear fission See Fission Nuclear fuel See Reactor Fuel Nuclear fuel cycle See Fuel cycle Nuclear fusion See Fusion energy Nuclear industry, 41 Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty See Non-Proliferation Treaty Nuclear power See Nuclear Energy Nuclear power costs See Electricity costs Index Nuclear Power Issues and Choices, 216, 503 Nuclear power plants See Reactors Nuclear reactions See also Neutron reactions cross sections, defined, 125–127 energy release, 626 reaction types, 123–125 Nuclear reactors See Reactors Nuclear Regulatory Commission licensing dry storage casks, 255 enrichment facility, 202 interim storage (PFS), 259 reactor renewals, 41–42 reactors, 217, 443–444, 449–452, 602 Yucca Mountain repository, 298, 327, 330–332, 362 radiation standards, 86, 105, 245, 248 reactor safety accident precursors, 399–401, 403 assessments, 384–391, 393–399 NUREG-1150, 388, 393–399, 405 safety standards, 403–408 TMI information, 417 responsibilities of, 293–294, 296, 357 waste disposal, 233, 294–296 waste transportation, 261, 264, 266 Yucca Mountain, 303, 308, 317, 323, 330–331 Nuclear species, 66–68, 619, 628–630 Nuclear terrorism See Terrorism Nuclear waste characteristics See also Spent fuel, Thermal output, Yucca Mountain activity of wastes activity vs time, 238–241, 244, 246–250 effect of actinide removal, 241–242, 249–250 major radionuclides, 239–241 amounts of waste civilian and military, 234–235 mass and volume, 235–238 spent fuel output rate, 234, 238 Yucca Mountain capacity, 235, 302 radiation hazards, 244–250 and WDV, 245–249 685 comparisons, 247–251 spent fuel, direct contact, 244, 497 Nuclear waste fund, 296, 302–303, 563 Nuclear waste handling See also Spent fuel, Reprocessing, Yucca Mountain categories of waste, 231–234 disposal options See also Geologic alternatives to geologic, 277–285 subseabed disposal, 278–281 transmutation, 281–284 military wastes, 231–234 planning early U.S plans, 291–293 worldwide, 285–287 reduction of amount, 598–599 retrievability, 214, 299 301 stages in handling, 253–254 storage interim, 257–260 on-site, 213, 254–257 storage vs disposal, 213–214 transportation See Transportation vitrification, 215, 232, 286 waste package components, 266–267, 274–275, 305–307 lifetime, 276 placement, 273, 275–276, 299–301 Nuclear waste policy Congressional actions NWPA, 296–297, 301, 339 Yucca Mountain, 293, 297–298, 342, 356–357 intergenerational equity, 337–339, 347–353, 362–363, 365–366 organizations involved, 293–296 period for concern, 339, 343–344 public participation, 354–356 standards, 303, 339–347, 364–365 step-by-step approaches, 331, 359–362 wastes as surrogate issue, 358–359 NWTRB, 294–295, 305, 312, 327–328 Nuclear weapon programs See individual countries Nuclear weapon proliferation See Weapon programs and proliferation Nuclear weapons See Weapons, nuclear 686 Index Nucleosynthesis, 66–68 Nucleus, properties of, 619–620 Oak Ridge and ORNL, 29, 172, 187, 208 ORIGEN program, 208–209, 240 Oceans natural radioactivity in, 71–73 as source of uranium, 225–226 waste disposal in, 278–281 OCRWM, 293, 296 Ogden, Joan, 592 Oil See also petroleum and nuclear energy, 10–11, 17–20, 550–551, 607 resources, 7–11 Oklo natural reactor, 191 Okrent, David, 347, 365 Once-through fuel cycle, 194 Oppenheimer, J Robert, 495 OECD See also Nuclear Energy Agency electricity growth, energy sources, 18–19, 25 membership, nuclear waste disposal, 285–286 wind energy, 587–588 OPEC, 20 Pakistan nuclear programs, 525–526, 531–533 nuclear treaties, 519–522 as weapons source, 505, 523, 532–533 Palisades plant, dry storage, 255–256 Palo Verde reactors and MOX fuel, 217 Parson, Edward, 584 Partitioning of wastes, 241–242, 249–250, 281–284, 472 Passive reactor safety See Reactor safety measures Pastina, Barbara, 361 Pebble bed reactors, 446–447, 460, 466, 600 Pennsylvania Department of Health and TMI, 419–420 Petroleum See also Oil as energy source, 2, CO2 from, 12, 13–14 Phenix reactor, 190, 194, 468 Photons, 627 Photovoltaic power, 586–587 Pierce, Donald, 91 Pimentel, David, 609 Planck’s constant, 627 Plutonium from dismantled weapons, 217–218, 231, 284, 551–554 grades of, 492–494 use in weapons predetonation, 492–496 reactor grade, 495–497 weapons grade, 482, 487–489 Plutonium isotopes parameters at thermal energy, 157 production in reactors, 208–210 in spent fuel, 209, 239–242 Plutonium-238, 210 Plutonium-239 See also Pu isotopes destruction in reactors, 189–190, 552–554 fission cross section, 143–144 production in reactors basic processes, 125, 164–166, 171, 188 for weapons, 29–30, 171, 499–501, 524, 542–543 radiation hazard, 110 use in fast reactors, 188–189 use in weapons See Plutonium in waste repository, 271 Plutonium-240 See also Pu isotopes predetonation of bombs, 492–496 production, 492–493, 499–501 Plutonium-241, 239–241 Poisons, reactor, 166–168, 186, 424 Pollycove, Myron, 99 Positrons, 631 Potassium-40 in Earth’s crust and oceans, 71–73 in human body, 68, 76 as nucleosynthesis product, 66 radiation dose from, 74, 76 Power Plant and Industrial Fuel Use Act, 563, 572 Prairie Island dry storage, 255 Precursor events, 399–401, 403 Predetonation of bombs, 492–496 PCAST, 35, 444 Pressurized heavy water reactors See Heavy water reactors Index Pressurized water reactors (PWRs) characteristics of, 181–186 history, 31 evolutionary PWRs See EPR, System 80+ innovative PWRs See AP600 & AP1000, IRIS world use of, 177, 179–181 Price-Anderson Act, 560 Private Fuel Storage, 259–260 Probabilistic risk analysis/assessment See Reactor safety assessment Project on Managing the Atom, 504–505 Protactinium, 174 Proton, 620, 621, 622 Public Utility Commissions, 562 PURPA, 561 Puskin, Jerome, 114–115 Putnam, Palmer, 16 Pyroprocessing, 218–219, 472 Quality factor, 61 Rad, 59–60 Radiation dose anthropogenic sources, 74, 77–81 accidents, 80–81 See also individual accidents medical, 77–78 nuclear fuel cycle, 74, 79–80 See also Yucca Mountain nuclear weapon tests, 74, 79 occupational exposure, 80–81, 402 spent fuel, 244, 496–497 dose categories and units, 59–63 “high”and “low”doses, 86 natural sources, 73–77 average dose levels, 73–74 high radioactivity regions, 93–94 Radiation effects See BEIR, ICRP, NCRP, UNSCEAR effects on exposed populations atomic bombs, 87–89, 91 Chernobyl, 426–434 high radioactivity areas, 93 indoor radon, 112–115 occupational, 80–81, 94, 197–198 radium dial painters, 58, 112 high-dose effects, 88–91 687 low-dose effects, 86–87, 89–105 cancer induction, 90–104 DDREF, 89, 100–102 dose–response relation, 96–98 genetic effects, 104–105 hormesis, 96, 98–100, 114 linearity hypothesis, 63, 96–100, 114 threshold for, 91 radionuclide intake risks, 108–110 stochastic and deterministic, 61, 87 RERF, 86, 91, 432 Radiation exposure and dose, 58–59 Radiation protection standards, 105–108 agencies involved, 85–86 ALARA, 105, 108 annual limit on intake, 108, 116, 246–247 contaminated areas, 510–511 drinking water, 106 for general public, 105–107 nuclear waste See EPA occupational, 107–108 Radiative transitions, 627–628 Radioactive decay series, 68–70, 638–639 Radioactivity See also Radionuclides artificial, 27–28, 58 decay rate, 63–66, 636–638 discovery, 57–58 emissions, 58, 630–636 natural, 66–73 in nuclear wastes See also Nuclear waste characteristics comparisons to natural, 249–251 heat production from, 242–244 specific activity, 65–66 units of, 64 Radiological dispersion devices See Dirty bomb Radionuclides See also Radioactivity cosmogenic, 77 in Earth’s crust and oceans, 70–73 risks for intake, 108–110 selected list, 644 Radium-226 properties of, 110, 111–112 in uranium-238 decay series, 69 uses of, 58, 80, 111–112 688 Index Radon-222, 69 effects of, 94, 113–115 exposure of miners, 73–75 indoor radiation doses, 73–75, 112–113 from mill tailings, 197–198 radiation protection guidelines, 107 Ramsar (Iran), 93–94 Rancho Seco reactor, 38–39 Rasmussen, Norman, 384 Rasmussen report See Reactor safety assessment RBMK reactors at Chernobyl, 45, 421–422 design weaknesses, 422–423 Soviet development of, 180 use in FSU, 178, 421 Reaction cross sections See Cross sections, Neutron reactions Reactivity, 162–164 Reactor accidents See also Chernobyl, Three Mile Island, Windscale avoidance See Reactor safety criticality accidents, 372 effects of, 374, 377–378, 394–397, 411–414, 418–420, 426–436 explosion possibilities “bomblike,” 373 hydrogen, 417–418, 425 steam, 373, 425 impact on nuclear power, 20, 35, 40, 354, 436, 581 loss-of-coolant accidents, 372–373, 381–382, 454–455, 457–459 radionuclide releases, 382–383, 412, 418–419, 425–426 risk See Reactor safety assessment source term, 378, 419 summary of accidents, 411–414 Reactor containment, 185, 377, 383 Reactor coolants, 175–176, 181, 189, 447 Reactor cooling pools, 254, 513 Reactor cooling towers, 184–185 Reactor core, in PWR, 185–186 Reactor fuel assemblies, 185–186, 235–236 burnup, 206–208, 469 energy per unit mass, 210–212 fabrication, 204–205 fissile candidates, 173–174 fission gases, 185 fuel rods, 185 fuel types metallic, 174, 205, 468–469 mixed oxide See MOX molten salt, 172–173, 205, 471, 476 oxide, 174, 204–205 TRISO, 205, 462, 466 Reactor license renewals, 41–42 Reactor licensing See NRC, licensing Reactor period, 162–163 Reactor poisons, 166, 167–168, 186 Reactor pressure vessel, 181–183 Reactor safety assessment common mode failures, 387 core damage precursors, 399–401, 403 deterministic, 383–384 performance indicators, 399–403 probabilistic methodology, 384–388 probabilistic risk estimates ABWR, 450–451 ALMR, 469 AP600 & AP1000, 455–456 System 80+, 451–452 U.S LWRs, 389–392, 394–399 safety studies NUREG-1150, 388, 393–399, 405 WASH-740 (AEC study), 384 WASH-1400 (RSS), 384–392 seismic risk, 395, 397–399, 455 Reactor safety measures achieving safety, 374–377 goals and standards, 403–408, 440 historical record, 371–372, 399 passive or inherent safety, 375–376 Doppler broadening, 131–132, 379, 462 feedback mechanisms, 379–381 void coefficient, 380–381, 422–423 safety systems, 374–377 active systems, 375 containment, 185, 377, 383, criticality control, 379 defense in depth, 376–377 emergency cooling, 381–382, 454–455, 457–459, 463 Index Reactor-grade plutonium See Plutonium, grades of Reactor shutdowns, 36–39, 45 Reactors See also individual reactor types applications, 171 capacity factors, 39–41 capacity, specification of, 29–30 designation by category burners, breeders, 186–192 by coolant, 175–176 by generation, 444–445 homogeneous, 172–173 thermal and fast, 172 reactor types electric power, 177–179 Oklo natural reactor, 191 Pu-239 production, 30–31, 171, 499–500 special purpose reactors, 171 submarine reactors, 31, 179 size, 33, 176–177, 441–443, 452 terrorist attacks on, 39, 512–514 thermal efficiency, 205 world inventory, 25–26, 177 Reactors, future construction in progress, 45–47, 441 construction potential, 597–598 desired attributes, 439–441 actinide reduction, 467, 472 low costs, 440–441, 452, 456, 470, 569 hydrogen production, 471–472 proliferation resistance, 441, 467, 470, 472 safety, 440, 450–451, 451–452, 455–456, 469, 470 evolutionary and innovative, 440, 449 generation classification, 444–445 Generation IV program GIF program, 470 goals of program, 191, 284, 470 reactor candidates, 173, 442, 471–475 See also GFR, SCWR, VHTR IEA/NEA compilation, 449 near-term deployment See NearTerm Roadmap 689 reactor candidates (excluding Gen IV) See also individual reactors surveys of candidates, 445–449 accelerator-driven, 476–477 advanced LMRs, 467–469 evolutionary LWRs, 445–447, 449–452 fusion, 475–476 HWRs, 447 innovative LWRs, 446–447, 452–459 HTGRs, 446–447, 459–466, sizes of, 441–443, 452 Reiss, Mitchell, 541 Rem, 60–61 Renewable energy sources See also Wind power contribution from, 2, 6, 16, 585–589 relation to nuclear power, 582, 610–611 substitute for fossil fuels, 15–16, 585 tax credits, 574 Reprocessing, 194, 214–220, 472 actinide reduction, 219, 241–242 methods Purex, 214, 218 pyroprocessing, 218–219, 472 UREX, 218 weapons proliferation, 216, 220, 497–498, 548 worldwide status, 194, 215–217 Resonance escape probability, 156, 188 Resonances in cross sections, 128–132 Retardation factors, 269–272 Rhodes, Richard, 527 Rickover, Hyman, 31 Roentgen, as unit of exposure, 58–59 Roentgen, Wilhelm, 57 Rogner, Hans-Holger, Rogovin, Mitchell, 415 Rogovin report, 415, 418 Rokkashomura facilities, 49 Romania, nuclear power, 51 Rubidium-87, 66, 68, 71–72 Russia See also Soviet Union (former) nuclear power, 49–50, 177–178, 190, 449, 600 nuclear weapons, 525 nuclear-weapon state, NPT, 527–528, 541 690 Index Russia (continued ) reprocessing, 217, 498 uranium enrichment, 202 as weapons source, 505–507 Rutherford, Ernest, 27, 28, 139 Safe (or simplified) BWR, 442, 447 Safe Water Drinking Act, 106, 342 Sailor, William, 590 Sakharov, Andrei, 527 Salt beds, for wastes, 268, 292, 297 Sandia National Laboratory, 261 Saturated, unsaturated zones, 267, 300 Savannah River facilities, 215, 232 Schull, William, 485 Scrams, 401–402 Seawater See Desalination, Oceans Seawolf submarine reactor, 179 Second nuclear era, 439 Secular equilibrium, 70, 639 Seismic hazards reactors, 395, 397–399, 455 waste repository, 323–324 Separative work, 202–204 Serber, Robert, 489 Shippingport reactor, 31, 33, 179 Shoreham reactor, 38–39, 563, 572 SWR-1000, 446 Sievert, 61 Simplified (or safe) BWR, 442, 447 Sizewell-B reactor, 180 Skull Valley Band, Goshute Indians, 259 SL-1 accident, 371, 412, 413 Slovakia, nuclear power, 51 Smuggling, nuclear materials, 504–510 Smyth, Henry, 30 Snow, C.P., 354 Sodium-cooled reactors See also Liquid-metal fast reactors sodium, as coolant, 176, 189, 380, 468 Sodium Cooled Fast Reactor, 471 sodium graphite reactor, 33 Solar energy, 6, 586–587 See also Renewable energy Sorption of ions, 269–272 Source term, 378 South Africa nuclear power, 202, 460, 466, 600 nuclear weapons, 541, 547 South Korea nuclear power, 43–45, 52, 176–178, 180–181, 442, 451, 603 nuclear weapons, 539–540 Soviet Union (former) disposition of bombs, 523, 541 effects of Chernobyl, 436 nuclear power, 42, 49–50, 177–180 nuclear weapons, 42, 79, 527–528 nuclear-weapon state, NPT, 518 as source of weapons, 506–507, 523 Spallation, 476 Specific activity, 65–66 Spector, Leonard, 531 Spent fuel, 193 See also Nuclear waste, Reprocessing assemblies of, 236 discharge rate from LWRs, 237–238 inventories, 234–235 as nuclear waste, 231–232 radiation hazard, 244, 496–497 radionuclides in, 208–210, 238–241 storage of spent fuel cooling pools, 254, 513 dry storage, 213, 255–257, 513 interim storage (MRS), 257–260 thermal output, 236–237, 242–244 Standard design certification, 443 Starr, Chauncey, 595 Steam generation, 181–185 Strassmann, Fritz, 140 Strauss, Lewis L., 32 Strauss, Lewis H., 32 START treaties, 551 Strontium-90 high specific activity, 65 release in accidents, 383, 425–426 in spent fuel, 239–241 Submarine reactors, 31, 179 Subseabed disposal, 278–281, 599 SCWR, 471, 474–475 Superphenix reactor, 45, 190, 194 Supralinearity, in radiation effects, 96–87 Surry nuclear plant, 183, 255, 411 Sutcliffe, William, 350 Index Sweden nuclear power, 45 nuclear wastes, 258, 267, 273, 286 nuclear weapons, 539–540 Switzerland, nuclear, 45, 286 Synroc, 274 System 80+ reactor, 445–447, 451–452 Szilard, Leo, 27–28 Taiwan nuclear power, 53, 442, 603 nuclear weapons, 539–540 Tax on fossil fuels, 560, 574–575 Taylor, Theodore, 488, 491 Technicium-99, 239–241, 272, 282 Tennessee Valley Authority, 35 Terrorism bomb detection, 507–510 dirty bombs, 504, 510–512 nuclear bombs, 486, 491, 496–498, 503–510 nuclear power plants, 39, 512–514 and reprocessing, 216, 497–498, 503 smuggling, nuclear, 504–510 terrorist options, 502, 504, 513–514 theft of materials, 506–507, 523–524 Thermal breeder reactor, 173, 187 Thermal efficiency (reactors), 205 Thermal neutrons See also Neutron reactions energy of, 134, 136 reactions with, 135–136, 157–158 Thermal output of spent fuel after reactor shutdown, 381 repository thermal loading, 244, 272–273, 311–312, 327–328, 329 in wastes, 236–237, 242–244 Thermal utilization factor, 156–157, 188 Thermalization See Moderation Thorium-uranium fuel cycle, 187, 188 194–195, 205, 483 Thorium-230, in mill tailings, 198 Thorium-232 in Earth’s crust and oceans, 70–73 as fertile material, 143, 174, 194 as head of decay series, 69 parameters at thermal energy, 157 Three Mile Island reactor accident, 38 containment, 419 691 development of accident, 414–418 effects on human health, 418–420 impact on nuclear power, 35, 40 hydrogen explosion concerns, 417–418 subsequent corrections, 392–393 Tissue weighting factors, 62 Tokaimura accident, 81, 414 TSPAs See Yucca Mountain Transmutation of nuclides, 281–284 Transportation of wastes transportation hazards, 263–266 Yucca Mountain plans, 260–263 Transuranic elements, 619 Transuranic wastes, 233 Treaties See Weapon programs, international agreements TRISO fuel particles See Reactor fuel Trinity test, 485, 495, 527 Trojan reactor, 38–39 Tuff for waste repository, 268, 300 Uematsu, Kunihiko, 604 Ukraine nuclear power, 45, 50 nuclear weapons, 528, 541 United Kingdom nuclear power, 44 reactors, 42, 52, 176–180, 190 reprocessing, 216–217 wastes, 286 nuclear weapons, 42, 79, 525, 528 nuclear-weapon state, NPT, 518 Windscale reactor accident, 412 United Nations radiation studies, 85–86 UNSCEAR 1993 Report, 102 UNSCEAR 1994 Report, 89, 102 UNSCEAR 2000 Report, 74, 89, 102, 113, 115, 426–429 UNSCEAR 2001 Report, 104–105 United States carbon dioxide production, 13–14 energy consumption and sources, 2–4, 6, 10–11 nuclear power development history, 31–44 past projections, 53–54, 601–602 potential growth, 591, 598 reactor types, built, 33, 176–179, 181 692 Index United States (continued ) reactor types, prospective, 445–447, 471–472 reprocessing, 215–216, 220, 497–498 uranium enrichment, 202 nuclear weapons, 29–30, 79, 482, 525, 526–527 nuclear-weapon state, NPT, 518 U.S Department of Energy See DOE U.S Enrichment Corporation, 202, 552 USGS, 10, 294, 299–300, 309, 321 Uranium See also Enrichment chain reaction in, 29, 154–155 denaturing, 195, 491, 552 depleted, 199–200 mining and milling, 197–198 price of, 221–222, 226 reactor and weapons grade, 491, requirements per GWyr, 212–213, 219 uranium supply adequacy of resources, 225, 598 and breeder reactors, 226–227 grades of resources, 197 seawater resources, 225–226 terrestrial resources, 195, 197, 222–225 as weapons material, 482–483, 490–491, 524–525, 543 Uranium hexafluoride, 198–199 Uranium isotopes in spent fuel, 209 parameters at thermal energy, 157 Uranium oxide, 204–205, 236 Uranium-232 and bomb detection, 509 Uranium-233 See also Th-U fuel cycle potential for thermal breeder, 187 as weapons material, 482–483, 524 Uranium-235 See also Enrichment of uranium, Fission, Neutron reactions fissile properties, 142–143, 154, 157 fission cross sections, 128–136, 143–144 head of decay series, 69 requirements per GWyr, 211–212 Uranium-238 in Earth’s crust and oceans, 70–73 as fertile material, 124–125, 143 in human body, 77 fission properties, 143–144, 157 head of decay series, 69 Urenco, 202, 532 USSR (former) See Soviet Union (former) Verslius, Robert, 472 VHTR, 471, 472–474, 593 Vitrification of wastes, 215, 232, 286, 553 Void coefficient, 380–381, 422–423 VVER (or WWER) reactors, 50, 178, 180, 421–422 WASH-740, 384 WASH-1400 (RSS), 384–392 Wastes, nuclear See Nuclear wastes Waste Isolation Pilot Plant, 233, 268 Waste package See Nuclear waste handling Water dilution volume, 245–249 Watts Bar reactor, 35 Weapon programs and proliferation See also individual countries and commercial power fuel cycle, 194–195, 216, 220, 441, 497–498, 548–549 NPT undertakings, 518–519 relation between, 42, 481, 529, 542–545, 550–551, 599–600, 606–607, U.S policy, 517, 554–555 fissile materials initial national choices, 542–543 means of obtaining, 505–506, 523–525, 542, reducing stockpiles, 491, 507, 551–554 forms of proliferation, 522–525 international agreements Atoms for Peace, 517, 542 CTBT, 521, 522 influence of treaties, 521–522, 549–550 Limited Test Ban Treaty, 79 Non-Proliferation Treaty See NPT START I and II, 551 Treaty of Tlateloco, 540–541 Index national programs See also by country aspiring states, 533–539, 545–546 nuclear-weapon states, 526–529 other states with weapons, 530–536 terminated programs, 539–542 terrorist threats See Terrorism weapon inventories, 525–526 Weapons, nuclear basic characteristics chain reaction, 489–490 critical mass, 483, 486–489 effects of bombs, 485–486, 505 energy yield, 484–485, 494–496 gun-type, 483–484 implosion-type, 483–484, 488, 494–496 predetonation, 492–496 early history recognition of possibility, 27–29, 139–140 World War II, 29–30, 485 fissile material utilization plutonium bombs, 482, 492–497 uranium bombs, 482–483, 490–491 Weinberg, Alvin, 30, 439, 452, 575–576 Weiss, Edith Brown, 347–348 Wells, H.G., 27, 32 Westinghouse, 185, 202, 442, 451–456 West Valley reprocessing plant, 215 Wheeler, John, 140, 167 Wigner, Eugene, 30, 187 Wigner effect, 412, 461 Wilson, Richard, 424 Wind power, 6, 570, 579, 587–589 Windscale accident, 371, 412, 461 WANO, 393 World Energy Council, 589–591 World Health Organization, 430, 434 Xenon poisoning, 166–168, 424 X-rays, 57–58, 60 Yankee Rowe reactor, 33 Yellowcake, 197 Yeltsin, Boris, 541 Yucca Mountain repository See also Nuclear waste capacity and inventory, 234–235, 301–302 693 characteristics of site climate, 300, 308, 310 geologic, 299–300, 308, 521 repository layout, 300–301 disruptive events, 320–324 human intrusion, 324 seismic, 323–324 volcanic, 321–323, 330 institutional aspects, 297–298, 330–332, 353–357 neptunium-237, 115–118, 319 nuclear waste fund, 302–303 number impacted, 303–304 opposition to, 295–298, 358–359 protective barriers defense in depth, 304–305, 307, 320 engineered barriers, 305–308 natural barriers, 308–311 radiation doses calculated, 317–320, 322, 325–326 carbon-14, 340–342, 344–346 standards, 303–304, 339–347 selection of site, 220, 297, 356 studies of Yucca Mountain DOE TSPAs See below EPRI, 270–271, 324–326 NWTRB, 305, 312, 327–328, outside panels, 328–329 thermal loading, 273, 311–312, 327–328, 329 time horizon, 343–345 time schedule, 297–299 TSPAs DOE approach, 312–317 DOE results, 317–324 EPRI TSPAs, 314, 324–326 purpose, 245, 312–313 waste package design, 305–308 placement, 300–301 potential corrosion, 329–330 water travel to biosphere, 310–311, 330 into repository, 308–310, 330 Yulish, Charles, 552 Zimmerman, Peter, 524, 537, 547 Zircaloy, as fuel rod cladding, 185 ... Bodansky, David Nuclear energy : principles, practices, and prospects / David Bodansky.—2nd ed p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 0-387-20778-3 (hc : alk paper) Nuclear engineering... 17 Nuclear Bombs, Nuclear Energy, and Terrorism 481 17.1 Concerns About Links Between Nuclear Power and Nuclear Weapons 481 17.2 Nuclear. .. University of Washington, has read and discussed many parts of the book with me, and has given me the benefit of his deep understanding of nuclear matters Robert and Susan Vandenbosch, also in Seattle,