[...]... Countries A New Zealand B Canada C Australia D Japan E China The Emergence of National and International Carbon Markets A Compliance or Mandatory Markets B Voluntary Markets 1 Voluntary Carbon Standards and Markets 2 Source of Demand for Voluntary Carbon Credits 3 Development of Voluntary Standards, Registries, and Exchanges a Chicago Climate Exchange b Voluntary Carbon Standard c American Carbon Registry... 171 171 171 171 172 Carbon Project Development and Carbon Finance 12 13 Carbon Credit Project Types and Methodologies A Introduction to Carbon Credit Project Types and Methodologies B Methodologies for Developing Carbon Credit Project Types C Carbon Credit Project Types 1 Renewable Energy 2 Energy Efficiency 3 Landfill, Oil and Gas, and Other Methane Projects 4 Natural Gas Production and Distribution... Representations and Warranties Share of Proceeds and Taxes Default Termination Remedies Choice of Law and Venue Dispute Resolution Force Majeure Limitation of Liability Miscellaneous Issues PART SEVEN 263 264 265 265 266 266 266 267 267 267 267 Carbon Accounting Carbon Assets and Liabilities 21 22 The Carbon Ledger” and Carbon Credit Accounting A Carbon Accounting B Defining Carbon Assets and Liabilities... 250 250 251 251 Carbon Trading Selling Credits and the Carbon Markets 19 20 Fundamentals of Carbon Trading A A Regulatory “Commodity” B The Various Types of Carbon Credits C Primary or “Over-the-Counter” Markets and Bilateral Agreements D Secondary Markets and Exchanges E Future vs Spot Markets F Off-Take Agreements G Carbon Indexes H Fungible Commodity vs Differentiation I Voluntary and Compliance... Agriculture, Forestry, and Land Use a Avoided Deforestation and Reforestation i The Voluntary Carbon Standard Agriculture, Forestry, and Other Land Use Guidance (a) The baseline (b) Additionality (c) Leakage (d) Permanence and Related Carbon Buffer (e) Monitoring ii Climate Action Reserve Forestry Methodology (a) The baseline (b) Additionality (c) Leakage (d) Permanence and Related Carbon Buffer (e) Monitoring... Registration h Implementation and Monitoring i Verification and Certification j Issuance of Credits 2 The Voluntary Carbon Standard Process E Carbon Credit Project Risks F Examples of Projects 1 Landfill Methane 2 Solar Projects a Solar Projects Generally b Free-Standing or Utility-Scale Solar Projects c Non-Utility-Scale Solar Projects 3 Forest Carbon Projects Carbon Finance A Financing Carbon Projects B Project... Mechanism 6 Payment 7 Delivery 8 Representations and Warranties 9 Effective Date and Termination 10 Remedies and Damages 11 Change in Law H Contractual Issues in Selling RECs Inside California Ecosystem Services: Wetlands and Biodiversity Credits A Wetlands Credits and Banking B Biodiversity Credits C Credit Stacking Water Credits A Increasing Water Demand and Decreasing Water Supply B Why Water Is Becoming... rather than a command and control style system where little flexibility exists among industry and third party carbon credit project developers through emissions markets Even where mandatory regulation does not apply, the development of voluntary systems for trading voluntary reductions has already spread globally, with development of international voluntary standards for carbon credits and carbon credit... terms of mandatory financial disclosure and voluntary disclosure protocols The development of a cap and trade program in the United States presents uncertainty for U.S and global carbon markets, and the availability of debt and equity investment as a result of this uncertainty and the general state of domestic I N T R O D U C T I O N | xxxiii and international economies presents challenges to carbon credit... Involved in Project Finance 4 Managing Political Risk with International Projects C Carbon Finance 1 Basic Elements of Carbon Finance D Carbon Credit Project Lenders and Investors 1 Multilateral Banks and Associated Carbon Funds 2 Private Banks 3 Private Carbon Funds, Private Equity Firms, and Hedge Funds 4 Utilities and Other Compliance Investors 194 194 196 196 196 196 196 197 197 197 197 198 198 .