FUNGICIDES – BENEFICIAL AND HARMFUL ASPECTS Edited by Nooruddin Thajuddin Fungicides – Beneficial and Harmful Aspects Edited by Nooruddin Thajuddin Published by InTech Janeza Trdine 9, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia Copyright © 2011 InTech All chapters are Open Access distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 license, which allows users to download, copy and build upon published articles even for commercial purposes, as long as the author and publisher are properly credited, which ensures maximum dissemination and a wider impact of our publications. After this work has been published by InTech, authors have the right to republish it, in whole or part, in any publication of which they are the author, and to make other personal use of the work. Any republication, referencing or personal use of the work must explicitly identify the original source. As for readers, this license allows users to download, copy and build upon published chapters even for commercial purposes, as long as the author and publisher are properly credited, which ensures maximum dissemination and a wider impact of our publications. Notice Statements and opinions expressed in the chapters are these of the individual contributors and not necessarily those of the editors or publisher. No responsibility is accepted for the accuracy of information contained in the published chapters. The publisher assumes no responsibility for any damage or injury to persons or property arising out of the use of any materials, instructions, methods or ideas contained in the book. Publishing Process Manager Marko Rebrovic Technical Editor Teodora Smiljanic Cover Designer InTech Design Team Image Copyright B Brown, 2011. Used under license from Shutterstock.com First published November, 2011 Printed in Croatia A free online edition of this book is available at www.intechopen.com Additional hard copies can be obtained from orders@intechweb.org Fungicides – Beneficial and Harmful Aspects, Edited by Nooruddin Thajuddin p. cm. ISBN 978-953-307-451-1 free online editions of InTech Books and Journals can be found at www.intechopen.com Contents Preface IX Chapter 1 Optimizing Fungicide Applications for Plant Disease Management: Case Studies on Strawberry and Grape 1 Angel Rebollar-Alviter and Mizuho Nita Chapter 2 Resistance to Botryticides 19 Snježana Topolovec-Pintarić Chapter 3 Multiple Fungicide Resistance in Botrytis: A Growing Problem in German Soft-Fruit Production 45 Roland W. S. Weber and Alfred-Peter Entrop Chapter 4 Fenhexamid Resistance in the Botrytis Species Complex, Responsible for Grey Mould Disease 61 A. Billard, S. Fillinger, P. Leroux, J. Bach, C. Lanen, H. Lachaise, R. Beffa and D. Debieu Chapter 5 Impact of Fungicide Timing on the Composition of the Fusarium Head Blight Disease Complex and the Presence of Deoxynivalenol (DON) in Wheat 79 Kris Audenaert, Sofie Landschoot, Adriaan Vanheule, Willem Waegeman, Bernard De Baets and Geert Haesaert Chapter 6 Inoculation of Sugar Beet Seed with Bacteria P. fluorescens, B. subtilis and B. megaterium – Chemical Fungicides Alternative 99 Suzana Kristek, Andrija Kristek and Dragana Kocevski Chapter 7 State of the Art and Future Prospects of Alternative Control Means Against Postharvest Blue Mould of Apple: Exploiting the Induction of Resistance 117 Simona Marianna Sanzani and Antonio Ippolito Chapter 8 Combined Effects of Fungicides and Thermotherapy on Post-Harvest Quality of Horticultural Commodities 133 Maurizio Mulas VI Contents Chapter 9 Role of MAP Kinase Signaling in Secondary Metabolism and Adaptation to Abiotic/Fungicide Stress in Fusarium 167 Emese D. Nagygyörgy, László Hornok and Attila L. Ádám Chapter 10 Fungicides as Endocrine Disrupters in Non-Target Organisms 179 Marco F. L. Lemos, Ana C. Esteves and João L. T. Pestana Chapter 11 Molecular Characterization of Carbendazim Resistance of Plant Pathogen (Bipolaris oryzae) 197 S. Gomathinayagam, N. Balasubramanian, V. Shanmugaiah, M. Rekha, P. T. Manoharan and D. Lalithakumari Chapter 12 Accuracy of Real-Time PCR to Study Mycosphaerella graminicola Epidemic in Wheat: From Spore Arrival to Fungicide Efficiency 219 Selim Sameh, Roisin-Fichter Céline, Andry Jean-Baptiste and Bogdanow Boris Chapter 13 Evaluation of Soybean (Glycine max) Canopy Penetration with Several Nozzle Types and Pressures 239 Robert N. Klein, Jeffrey A. Golus and Greg R. Kruger Preface Fungicides are a class of pesticides used for killing or inhibiting the growth of fungus. They are extensively used in pharmaceutical industry, agriculture, in protection of seed during storage and in preventing the growth of fungi that produce toxins. Hence, fungicides production is constantly increasing as a result of their great importance to agriculture. Some fungicides affect humans and beneficial microorganisms including insects, birds and fish thus public concern about their effects is increasing day by day. In order to enrich the knowledge on beneficial and adverse effects of fungicides this book encompasses various aspects of the fungicides including fungicide resistance, mode of action, management fungal pathogens and defense mechanisms, ill effects of fungicides interfering the endocrine system, combined application of various fungicides and the need of GRAS (generally recognized as safe) fungicides. This volume will be useful source of information on fungicides for post graduate students, researchers, agriculturists, environmentalists and decision makers. This volume includes 13 chapters. The first chapter elaborates the problems associated with fungicide application, disease epidemiology, decision-making process, fungicide’s physical mode of action, resistance and its management with two case studies on strawberry and grape. The second chapter describes the problem of Botrytis resistance, monitoring methods, anti-resistant strategies, Botrytis cinerea MDR types, their mechanisms of resistance etc. in detail. The third chapter presents overall information on the multiple fungicide resistant Botrytis affecting German soft fruits such as raspberry and strawberry fruits. This article gave sufficient background information on fungicide resistance in Botrytis cinerea, resistance assay developed, reproducibility of the assay, temporal and special distribution of fungicide resistance, the major issues of multiple fungicide resistance, factors conducive for the spread of B. cinerea, fungicide application, etc. It will be useful not only to the researchers but also to the regional soft fruit growers. Fourth chapter is a comprehensive account of reviewing the Fenhexamid resistance in the Botrytis species responsible for grey mould disease. The authors have included their research outputs and incorporated recent publications in this chapter which helps to understand basic and applied aspects of this research field. X Preface The effects of fungicide application on the FHB disease complex with a combined approach of in vitro and in vivo field trials are discussed in the chapter 5. Sixth chapter explaining the utilization of beneficial bacteria such as Pseudomonas fluorescens, Bacillus subtilis and Bacillus megaterium against pathogenic fungi Rhizoctonia solani and Pythium debarianum. Seventh chapter presents sufficient background information on origin, distribution, fungal pathogens and diseases of apple, fungal toxins, defence mechanisms, alternative measures to control post harvest blue mould of apple etc. and it will be useful to the researchers as well as people involved in cultivation of apple. The author of the eighth chapter has sufficiently discussed the effect of old and new fungicides on various fruits, combined application of various fungicides and thermotherapy on various horticultural commodities, and the need of GRAS (generally recognized as safe) fungicides as an alternative to traditional fungicides which are ineffective against resistant strains. Ninth chapter describes the role of Mitogen Activated Protein Kinase (MAPK) signaling in secondary metabolism and adaptation to abiotic/fungicide stress in Fusarium using ∆Fvhog1 and ∆Fvmk2 CWI MAPK mutants of F. verticillioides by comparing their sensitivity to different oxidative stressors. The authors of this chapter elaborate the role of HOG1 MAPK signaling in stress and fungicide tolerance, the role of MAPK pathways in secondary metabolism of Fusarium species, complexity of oxidative stress signaling in fungi and sensitivity of different Fusarium species to hydrogen peroxide. Tenth chapter presents the Endocrine Disruptor Compounds (EDCs) such as tributyltin (androgen) and vinclozolin (anti-androgen) and their effects on vertebrate and invertebrate taxa including non target organisms. The ill effects of these fungicides interfering the endocrine system in the synthesis, secretion, transport, action or elimination of natural hormones, including in the induction of cell tumors, reduction of ejaculated sperm numbers and prostate weight and delayed puberty are clearly described in this article. As many pathogens develop resistance under field conditions due to frequent application of various fungicides, the eleventh chapter paper presents detailed information on the laboratory mutant of Bipolarize oryzae resistant to Carbendazim and follows intensive studies on molecular mechanisms of the fungicide resistance to benzimidazole compound. Twelfth chapter describes the epidemiological context of Mycosphaerella graminicola, the effect of other factors such as external contamination by ascospores, cultivars resistance, leaf colonization stages, fungicide efficiency using qPCR and correlation between qPCR analysis and visual symptoms. Thirteenth chapter explains the efficacy of fungicide applications, the importance of nozzle tips, pressure, nozzle spacing and angle, optimum spray particle size in getting the greatest coverage at lower levels of the soybean canopy. A list of important bibiliography is included at the end of the each chapter to assist the readers in enriching their knowledge on fungicides. [...]... sometimes as a result of the lack of knowledge of the pathogen biology and epidemiology, fungicide mode of action and fungicide residues Or simply growers do not want take risks because of high costs and 2 Fungicides – Beneficial and Harmful Aspects values of these crops Moreover, the availability of several groups and mixtures of fungicides in the market is creating confusion among growers who are constantly... placement of a fungicide in relation to the host- 8 Fungicides – Beneficial and Harmful Aspects pathogen interaction, that is on pre-infection, post-infection, pre- and post-symptom, and vapor activity (Szkolnik 1981; Wong and Wilcox 2001) and the duration and degree of the fungicides activity (Pfender 2006) PMoA of protectant fungicides is pre-infection effect It can reduce the infection efficiency... viticola (Sacc.), is the causal agent of the disease (Pearson and Goheen 1988) Typical symptoms on leaves are yellow spots, which varies in size (less than 1 mm to a few mm) On canes and rachis, it causes necrotic lesions that can be expanded to 10 Fungicides – Beneficial and Harmful Aspects cause canker The infected tissues become weak and prone to be damaged by wind With heavy infection on rachis,... show the typical symptoms, except they appear discolored and whitish in some areas However, diseased fruits are in general easy to distinguish because the bad 12 Fungicides – Beneficial and Harmful Aspects off-odor and taste, which is caused by phenolic compounds (Jelen et al 2005) In Ohio, losses over 50% have reported (Ellis and Grove 1983) and in areas with medium to low technology levels in open... Conference, Pests and Diseases -1992 Volume 1 Farnham (United Kingdom), British Crop Protection Council: 435-442 16 Fungicides – Beneficial and Harmful Aspects Goffinet, M C and R C Pearson (1991) Anatomy of Russeting Induced in Concord Grape Berries by the Fungicide Chlorothalonil Am J Enol Vitic 42(4): 281-289 Grove, G G., L V Madden and M A Ellis (1985a) Influence of temperature and wetness duration... isolates of Phytophthora cactorum that cause leather rot and crown rot on strawberry Plant Dis 91:16251637 Rebollar-Alviter, A., L L Wilson, L V Madden and M A Ellis (2010) A comparative evaluation of post-infection efficacy of mefenoxam and potassium phosphite with 18 Fungicides – Beneficial and Harmful Aspects protectant efficacy of azoxystrobin and potassium phosphite for controlling leather rot of... from that decade are resistance to organomercurials by cereal leaf spot and strip caused by 4 Fungicides – Beneficial and Harmful Aspects Pyrenophora spp., dodine resistant apple scab (Venturia inequalis), and QoI (Quinone-Outside Inhibitor) resistance against grape powdery mildew (caused by Erysiphe necator) in the field in Europe, and North America in 1990's to 2000's (Staub 1991; Baudoin et al 2008)... berries are dark coloured and show the typical greyish, hairy mycelium all over their surface Especially sporulating mycelium can be seen to grow along cracks or splits on the berries because tufts of condiophores with conida are protrude from stoma and peristomal cracks on the skin of the berry The B cinerea can also infect 22 Fungicides – Beneficial and Harmful Aspects young leaves and relatively older... fungicide 6 Fungicides – Beneficial and Harmful Aspects resistance For instance, in order to manage grape powdery mildew under eastern US growing conditions, wine grape growers typically use a fungicide (or multiple fungicides) for powdery mildew practically every time they spray (10-15 times per year) If they use a DMI early in the season, they may not have much choice later Thus, careful planning and execution... Strawberry Flowers and Fruit Plant Disease 86(9): 1019-1024 Nita, M., M A Ellis and L V Madden (2007a) Evaluation of the curative and protectant activity of fungicides and fungicide-adjuvant mixtures on Phomopsis cane and leaf spot of grape: a controlled environment study Crop Protection 26(9): 1377-1384 Nita, M., M A Ellis and L V Madden (2008) Variation in Disease Incidence of Phomopsis Cane and Leaf Spot . FUNGICIDES – BENEFICIAL AND HARMFUL ASPECTS Edited by Nooruddin Thajuddin Fungicides – Beneficial and Harmful Aspects Edited by Nooruddin. biology and epidemiology, fungicide mode of action and fungicide residues. Or simply growers do not want take risks because of high costs and Fungicides – Beneficial and Harmful Aspects 2. host- Fungicides – Beneficial and Harmful Aspects 8 pathogen interaction, that is on pre-infection, post-infection, pre- and post-symptom, and vapor activity (Szkolnik 1981; Wong and Wilcox