JWBK117-5.3 JWBK117-Quevauviller October 12, 2006 21:44 Char Count= 0 Mass Loading Calculation 317 r The error of load estimates for monthly sampling compared with weekly sampling is 20–30 % for the Danube, while for the Zola it is higher, due to the faster dynamic in the smaller water shed. r The error inthe estimates with Monte Carlo simulation does not differ substantially from the analytical statistical results. 5.3.4.3 Calculation for Long-term Periods Because sampling frequency is generally reduced, the load of a specific sampling day is extrapolated to the entire period of days up to the following sampling day. A theoretical interpolation could moreover be made from the measured single day loads. Table 5.3.3 summarizes the main characteristics of different procedures that can be used for calculating mass loadings over long-term periods (from months to one year). The unit loading factor (mass of specific pollutant dischargedperpersonperday)is the least accurate, but may be a rapid, easy and no (or low) cost method of estimation that could be used as a guide (e.g. in calculating annual loads of nutrients). The uncertainties of estimation lie in the use of standard (national) and fixed factors, regarding pro capita daily discharges into the sewer system and removal efficiencies of influent loads during treatment. A more precise estimation could be obtained utilizing local or site specific factors, including a better definition of the contributing population (inhabitants, equivalent and transient population) if such data were available at low cost. Another procedure involves the utilization of dependent or independent data (as regards sampling time). To calculate the annual average of mass loading, the daily average load is required. The frequency of measurement of each daily load depends on the technique of sampling (concentration) and measuring flow rate which is used Considering the level and nature of fluctuation of both variables, the accuracy of the annual load depends on the number of daily data available, their distribution throughout the period and the methodology used for collecting waste samples: one or more grab samples, composite samples or continuous automatic sampling. The more accurate (and generally used) procedure is based on the collection of a composite sample, representing a 24 h waste discharge. The composite sample is made up of waste portions collected at regular intervals (1 h or less). These fractions are put together proportionally to the (averaged) rate of flow at the time each sub- sample was drawn. The final sample (composite sample) gives the daily weighted average concentration of the parameter considered, which multiplied by the corre- sponding 24 h cumulative flow gives the corresponding daily load. Alternatively, each subsample can be analysed separately. The concentrations are multiplied by the corresponding flow rates, summing all the products. Therefore, for both procedures, the annual load is obtained on the basis of the daily loads available. The composite sample can be obtained manually or using a refrigerated con- tinuous sampler, which automatically collects individual subsamples or the final JWBK117-5.3 JWBK117-Quevauviller October 12, 2006 21:44 Char Count= 0 Table 5.3.3 Characteristics of different methodologies for the calculation of mass loading on long-term periods [L(kg/period)] Procedure Calculation Comments Resources Unit loading factor (LF ) L = LF(kg/day) ×η× population × period (day) where η = efficiency of treatment Available national LF and literature η for BOD 5 , COD, TSS and different fractions of N and P (see text) Simple No (or low) procedure cost Average loads [Calculated by time dependent or independent measure of daily average concentration (C av ) and flow rate (Q av )] L = C av (g/m 3 ) × Q av (m 3 /day)× period(day) Accuracy of calculation depends on the quality of daily average data, sampling strategies and time correlation between C and Q (see text) Personnel for sampling and analysis Conventional laboratory instrumentation 24 h composite sample (flow rate weighted average) [Calculated by combining average weighted concentration (C w ) with corresponding 24 h cumulative flow rate (Q c ) (see text)] L =  n  i=1 C w (g/m 3 )×Q c (m 3 /day)  × n ×CIS where n = number of samples collected and CIS = constant interval of sampling (day) = period of record n This formula refers to sampling of regular frequency e.g. one composite sample any 7 days Calculation gives different estimates in relation to the frequency and the strategy of sampling Personnel for sampling and analysis Automated sampler Conventional laboratory instrumentation On-line sensor [Calculated by combining continuously measured concentration (C OL ) with corresponding time flow rate (Q OL ). C OL and Q OL are frequently averaged to 1h(C H and Q H ) L = p  i=1 C H (g/m 3 ) × Q H (m 3 /day) This technique gives the best accurate evaluation of the annual mass load (see text) Completely automated system Skills in on-line sensor use, data acquisition and handling The system is generally installed for real time advanced process control and monitoring purposes Sensor for inorganic dissolved P and N forms are available in the market 318 JWBK117-5.3 JWBK117-Quevauviller October 12, 2006 21:44 Char Count= 0 Comparison ofDifferentStrategiesforNutrientAnnualLoadingCalculation 319 composite one, if a flow rate sensor electronically controls the amount of each waste sample. A totally automatic system, based on an on-line sensor for monitoring concen- tration of important variables and flow rate, can calculate mass load for any time period with the most accuracy. However, notwithstanding the reliability of the new instrumentation available, the use of on-line sensors for real time control of WWTP processes is not common in Europe (Jeppsson et al., 2002). This procedure is the most complex, requiring three levels of information-related activities (Frey and Lynggaard-Jensen, 2002): r level 1: dataacquisition (calibration, preventive and emergency maintenance, com- munication interface for data collection supervisory control); r level 2: data handling (wide range of possible actions, including data aggregation, synthesis and ‘fusion’, quality assessment); r level 3: operation and management (planning, decision and cost / benefit analysis). 5.3.5 COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT STRATEGIES FOR NUTRIENT ANNUAL LOADING CALCULATION: AN EXAMPLE USING REAL DATA The WWTP of Levico (Trento, Italy) was built for a capacity of 100 000 EI, and currently treats 50 000 EI. The fluctuating tourist population is estimated to be in the order of 10 000–15 000 EI/year. When the combined sewer system is exceeded, the excess flow is allowed to escape in the form of CSO into the receiving river Brenta, a sensitive receptor, in accordance with the regulations of the Autonomous Province of Trento. After a conventional pretreatment, the waste is split into two lines. The first line undergoes a pre-denitrification, followed by a conventional biological treatment (ac- tivated sludge) with ammonia nitrification; the second line undergoes only oxidative biological treatment. The effluents coming from the respective secondary settlers are recombined, and subsequently filtered and (possibly) disinfected with chlorine before reaching the surface water receptor. Flow rate, inorganic dissolved nitrogen (N-NH 4 , N-NO 3 ) and dissolved inorganic phosphorus (IP) are continuously monitored using on-line sensors (SOIS, 2004). Instantaneous waste samples are collected every hour and analysed following a European-patented batch-wide procedure (ECOFIELD), which utilizes conven- tional colorimetric principles. The overall precision is better than 5 %. The monitors installed are checked monthly with external reference procedures and recalibrated should a difference ±10 % be found. Single data can be validated performing a semi-automatic quality control (SOIS, 2004). JWBK117-5.3 JWBK117-Quevauviller October 12, 2006 21:44 Char Count= 0 320 Discharges in Sensitive Receiving Waters Figure 5.3.2(a–c) shows the relationship between hourly concentrations of the measured variables and the corresponding average hourly flows relating to the 2004 monitoring period. About 80 % of the points for N-NH 4 and N-NO 3 are confined to a narrow domain of C and Q values, having similar relative size. About 85 % of the points for IP are confined to a domain having C values approximately 10 times the size of Q values. Figure 5.3.3 (a and b) shows the relationship between hourly mass loading of TIN and IP and the corresponding average hourly flow rates. Loads of IP and TIN do not show any clear correlation with flow rates. This database (more than 90 % of the total data for 2003) was utilized to compare the following different procedures, which can be easily simulated, for ‘reconstruct- ing’ annual IP and TIN mass loads. r Procedure 1 (reference): sum of each C h × Q h product calculated on an hourly basis. r Procedure 2: sum of each C d × Q d , where C is the daily arithmetical average and Q is the average 24 h total flow. This procedure simulates a continuous sampling not proportional to flow rate, combined with the cumulated value of the 24 h flow. r Procedure 3: this procedure simulates 52 composite 24 h samples (weekly fre- quency). r Procedure 4: this procedure simulates 26 composite 24 h samples (biweekly fre- quency). r Procedure 5: this procedure simulates 12 composite 24 h samples (monthly fre- quency, on the first day of each month). r Procedure 6: this procedure simulates four (seasonal) intensive composite sam- pling campaigns (in January, April, July and November, each lasting 4 consecutive weeks). r Procedure 7 (a and b): these two procedures simulate a systematic sampling on each day of the year; for each day a continuous sample is collected in the interval 9–10 a.m. (procedure a) or in the interval 2–3 p.m. (procedure b). For both proce- dures, the single hour concentration is multiplied by the 24 h cumulative flow of the corresponding day; the products are summed throughout the year. Procedure 2 simulates the common practice of using an automatic sampler operating under no flow control, using 24 h cumulative flow instead of instantaneous flow measurement. Procedures 3–6 utilize different sampling strategies, based on the 24 h integrated sample and the 24 h cumulative flow. Procedure 7 (a and b) represents extreme strategies, based on a very short time of sampling (manually or automatically for 1 h/day) for a period of 1 year. For JWBK117-5.3 JWBK117-Quevauviller October 12, 2006 21:44 Char Count= 0 Comparison ofDifferentStrategiesforNutrientAnnualLoadingCalculation 321 0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 12.00 14.00 16.00 0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 Flow (m 3 /day) 0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 Flow (m 3 /day) 0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 Flow (m 3 /day) N-NO 3 (mg N/l -1 ) N-NH 4 (mg N/sol l) (a) 0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 (b) 0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 P-PO 4 (mg P/l) (c) Figure 5.3.2 Correlation between flow rate and concentration of N-NO 3 (a), N-NH 4 (b) and P-PO 4 (c) (on-line monitoring, 2004). Single point combines hourly measure of variables JWBK117-5.3 JWBK117-Quevauviller October 12, 2006 21:44 Char Count= 0 322 Discharges in Sensitive Receiving Waters 0 50 100 150 200 250 0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 (a) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 (b) Flow (m 3 /day) 0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 Flow (m 3 /day) Load (kg N/day) Load (kg P/day) Figure 5.3.3 Correlation between load of TIN (a) and IP (b) and flow rate (on line monitoring, 2004). Single point combines hourly measure of variables calculating daily mass loading, the single hour concentration is used to represent the 24 h average. In Figure 5.3.4 (a and b) the profiles of daily mass loadings of TIN and IP, re- spectively, are represented. Daily loads are calculated by summing respective hourly loads. Tables 5.3.4 and 5.3.5 summarize the results obtained following the different simulated strategies. The set of data used have an intrinsic uncertainty, related to sensor accuracy, calibration procedures, maintenance operations, validation, etc., during the period of record (2004). JWBK117-5.3 JWBK117-Quevauviller October 12, 2006 21:44 Char Count= 0 Comparison ofDifferentStrategiesforNutrientAnnualLoadingCalculation 323 0 50 100 150 200 250 1/1/2004 Time (day) 12/31/2004 1/1/2004 Time (day) 12/31/2004 (a) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 (b) Load (kg P/day) Load (kg N/day) Figure 5.3.4 Profile ofdaily loadsof TIN(a)and IP (b) duringthe year 2004(on-linemonitoring) Therefore, the accuracy of each ‘reconstructed’ year load estimate, based on a different combination and use of these data, is only affected by the dimension (representativeness) of the sample extracted from the population, assuming that the error associated with analytical and collecting procedures is unchanged. The importance of the frequency of sampling can be inferred from procedure 2. Notwithstanding the fact that all the daily average concentrations are calculated from (simulated) samples continuously collected rather than proportionally with flow rate, the estimated loads maintain a high level of accuracy. Comparing procedures 3–6 with the reference procedure 1, it can be concluded that the nature and extent of N and P concentrations (see Figures 5.3.1 and 5.3.2) JWBK117-5.3 JWBK117-Quevauviller October 12, 2006 21:44 Char Count= 0 324 Discharges in Sensitive Receiving Waters Table 5.3.4 Comparison of yearly mass loading of TIN among different strategies of data collection Differences among the reconstructed loads and the ‘true’ load Description of the Mass loading Code procedure (see text) (kg/year) (kg/year) (%) 1 On-line hour (reference) 40 067 — — 2 Daily average, not Q weighted 40 185 118 0.30 3 52 integrated 24 h (weekly sampling) 40 316 249 0.62 4 26 integrated 24 h (biweekly sampling) 39 889 −177 −0.44 5 12 integrated 24 h (monthly sampling) 41 751 1684 4.20 6 4 weeks × 4 months (seasonal sampling) 40 171 104 0.26 7a 1 h × year (9 a.m.) 37 821 −2746 −6.85 7b 1 h × year (2 p.m.) 42 708 2641 6.59 have a major role, when the number of samples is progressively reduced, in order to contain the costs involved. Procedure 7 (a and b) simulates a strategy of collecting samples throughout 1 year, based on minimization of the costs (personnel and technology) involved. The error that may be introduced (evident over- and underestimations of the annual loads) is the consequence of the lack of representativeness inherent in the entire procedure. The main conclusions that can be drawn from this exercise are as follows: r The differences between the ‘true’ annual load and averaged estimated loads, derived from other strategies of data collection, are strongly related to the global variability and intercorrelation of available data. Table 5.3.5 Comparison of yearly mass loading of IP among different strategies of data collection Differences among the reconstructed loads and the ‘true’ load Description of the Mass loading Code Procedure (see text) (kg/year) (kg/year) (%) 1 On-line hour (reference) 4903 — — 2 Daily average, not Q weighted 4892 −11 −0.22 3 52 integrated 24 h (weekly sampling) 4811 −91 −1.86 4 26 integrated 24 h (biweekly sampling) 4610 −292 −5.96 5 12 integrated 24 h (monthly sampling) 5263 360 7.35 6 4 weeks × 4 months (seasonal sampling 5071 168 3.43 7a 1 h × year (9 a.m.) 5136 234 4.76 7b 1 h × year (2 p.m.) 4531 −371 −7.57 JWBK117-5.3 JWBK117-Quevauviller October 12, 2006 21:44 Char Count= 0 Conclusion and perspectives 325 r The magnitude of ‘error’ of annual loads estimates is dominated by the frequency of sample collection. r Variables showing a narrower pattern of dispersion (such as N in comparison with P data) do not substantially modify the (absolute) error of the estimate, when flow weighted sample frequency is reduced from yearly to biweekly and seasonal (16 samples). 5.3.6 CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECTIVES In the context of discharges in sensitive water bodies, the concentration of the vari- ables involved is less important than the corresponding mass loading. As a conse- quence, wastewater discharges must be described by measuring the concentration of the pollutant in the sample, together with the flow rate condition at the moment of sampling. In mass loading calculation, two time dimensions have to be considered: the duration of sample collection and the period of record. Sampling time may be on the order of only a few minutes and it lasts no more than a day. Loads can be generally averaged on a seasonal basis or per year but, in other situations, daily or specific single event duration may be more appropriate. Sampling frequency being generally reduced due to economic limitations, the load calculated on a specific day is in some way extrapolated to the entire period up to the following sampling day. The frequency of measurement of daily loads during the period of record depends on the technique of sampling and measuring flow rate used. An accurate and generally used procedure is based on the collection of a compos- ite 24 h sample, made up of waste portions collected at regular intervals put together proportionally to the flow rate. The final sample (composite sample) gives the daily weighted average concentration of the parameter under consideration, which, multi- plied by the corresponding cumulative flow rate, gives the corresponding daily load. Annual or seasonal mass loads are obtained from the daily load available. The composite sample can be obtained manually or using a continuous sampler that automatically collects individualsubsamplesorthefinalcompositeone.Atotally automatic system, based on an on-line sensor for monitoring concentration and flow rate, can calculate pollutant mass load for any time period with the highest accuracy. The accuracy of the annual load depends on the number of daily data available, their distribution throughout the period and the methodology used for collecting waste samples. Generally, a weekly frequency is considered adequate to obtain an accurate esti- mate. The covariance dynamic of measured variables (parameter concentration and flow rate) can allow reduction, and possibly significant reduction, of the sampling frequency. JWBK117-5.3 JWBK117-Quevauviller October 12, 2006 21:44 Char Count= 0 326 Discharges in Sensitive Receiving Waters Unfortunately, this possibility, which depends on the type and the pattern of dis- charge of the pollution sources, cannot be predicated on theory. Potential indicators of stability of the whole system may be the capacity of the WWTP (increasing) and the presence of a separate urban collecting sewer. In accordance with the recent European Water Framework Directive, the emission limit value (ELV) approach to tackling water pollution will become widely used in the near future. The ELV approach focuses on the maximum permitted quantity of a specific pollutant that may be discharged from a selected source, particularly in sensitive areas. ELV deals with wastewater treatment performance, mass load and pollutant balance (with particular focus on nitrogen and phosphorus) and also with strategy evaluation for restoring compromised water resources. Conventional technology available for calculating mass loading can fulfil these tasks. Furthermore, the new instrumentation developed for control and automation in WWTPs could be utilized with the advantage of improving performance control and reducing energy consumption during treatment. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors thank the WWTP Management Service of the Autonomous Province of Trento (SOIS-PAT) for allowing access to and use of its database, containing all the analytical data acquired during the WWTP effluent quality control program. REFERENCES Bazzurro, N., Gallea, A. and Lasagna, C. (1999) Integrated Planning and Management of Urban Drainage, Waste Water Treatment and Receiving Water System: the Experience of AMGA. In: Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Storm Urban Drainage, Jolisse, I. B. and Ball, J.E. (Eds). International Association for Hydraulic Research: Sydney, Australia, pp. 340–348. Clement, A.and Buz´as, K.(1999) Useof AmbientWaterQuality Data toRefine EmissionEstimates in the Danube Basin. Water Science and Technology, 40, 10, 35–42. Cochran, W.G. (1962) Sampling Techniques. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, New York. Frey, M. and Lynggaard-Jensen, A. (2002) Data Handling and Validation. In: Online Monitoring for Drinking Water Utilities, Hargesheimer, E., Conio, O. and Popovicova, J. (Eds). Awwa Research Foundation CRS PROACQUA, Denver, USA, pp. 289–312. House, M.A., Ellis, J.B., Herricks, E.E., Hvitved-Jacobsen, T., Seager, J., Lijklema, L., Aalderink, H. and Clifforde, I.T. (1993) Urban Drainage – Impact on Receiving Water Quality, Water Science and Technology, 27, 12, 117–158. Jeppsson, U., Alex, J., Pons, M.N., Spanjers, H. and Vanrolleghem, P.A. (2002) Status and Future Trends of ICA in Wastewater Treatment: a European Perspective. Water Science and Technol- ogy, 45 (4–5), 485–494. Jeppsson, U. and Hellstr¨om, D. (2002) Systems Analysis for Environmental Assessment of Urban Water and Wastewater Systems. Water Science and Technology, 46, (6–7), 121–126. [...]... 5.4.6.2 Monitoring Strategy for Agricultural Irrigation in the Dan Region, Israel 5.4.6.3 Monitoring Strategy to Close the Water Cycle at the Flemish Coast, Belgium 5.4.7 Conclusions Acknowledgements References Wastewater Quality Monitoring and Treatment Edited by P Quevauviller, O Thomas and A van der Beken C 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd ISBN: 0-471-49929-3 JWBK117-5.4 JWBK117-Quevauviller October 10, 2006... rainwater) and type of treatment (centralized versus decentralized) Urban and residential water reuse is most strongly impaired by hygienic parameters, but nutrient level [biological oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), N, P], heavy metals, hardness, amount of suspended solids, salt content, odour and colour may also be critical for safe use and public acceptance Representative quality criteria... sulfates and ammonia (3) Interference with free chlorine disinfection due to ammonia (4) Stimulation of microbial growth (and consequently slime formation) due to ammonia, nitrates, phosphorus and residual organics (5) Deposition/clogging from suspended solids (6) Scale formation from calcium, magnesium, iron, silica and phosphorus (7) Staining from iron and manganese The actual choice of the monitoring and. .. appropriate use and acceptance of this practice, and monitoring and control plays a paramount role in this respect A sub-optimally monitored scheme may result in adverse health, environmental or financial outcomes that may quickly dampen any enthusiasm for water reuse, hindering its development in the region Main determinants contributing to the setting of an appropriate monitoring and control strategy... of industrial crops and crops not raw consumed, impoundments, water bodies and streams with unrestricted recreational access (except bathing) 5 Irrigation of forested areas, -landscape areas and restricted access areas, -Aquaculture (plant or animal biomass) -Aquifer recharge by localised percolation through the soil Moderate 6 Surface water quality, impoundments, water bodies and streams for recreational... (derived and adapted from Salgot et al., 2006) and the related monitoring programme requirements Spanish legislation that is being drafted, foresees 5 classes but a more limited set of parameters Primary reasons for the disagreement between experts and authorities in different countries are that the implementation of the precautionary principle is a regional/local matter (Anderson et al., 2001) and that... reclaimed water On the other hand, the monitoring of the chemical and physical properties of reclaimed water is a crucial aspect in any investigated monitoring programme Major concerns are inorganic salts, such as sodium chloride and a host of trace elements including heavy metals Their follow-up is particularly necessary in dry climates, where much of the irrigation water evaporates and the concentration... commonly found in reclaimed water being boron, sodium and chloride (Bixio and Wintgens, 2006) In the follow-up of salinity hazards, the electrical conductivity (EC) is used as a surrogate measure of TDS concentration (Pettygrove and Asano, 1985) and saline waters, while the sodium adsorption ratio {SAR = Na / [( Ca + Mg) / 2]} and the ratio between calcium and magnesium is used to predict problems related... the products, and in the case of fruits like apples and pears, requires an expensive treatment before marketing) 5.4.2.2 Urban and Residential Applications There is a large variety in the type of urban water reuse schemes A differentiation may be possible by location and type of use (toilet flushing, garden watering, parks, commercial and public complexes), type of source water (municipal wastewater, ... References October 12, 2006 21:44 Char Count= 0 327 Lijklema, L., Tyson, J.M and Lesouef, A (1993) Interaction between Sewers in Treatment Plant and Receiving Waters in Urban Areas: a Summary of the INTERURBA ’92 Workshop Conclusion Water Science and Technology, 27, 12, 1–29 Metcalf and Eddy (2003) Wastewater Engineering Treatment and Reuse, 4th Edn McGraw Hill, Boston, pp 170–197 Richards, R.P (1989) Determination . Conclusions Acknowledgements References Wastewater Quality Monitoring and Treatment Edited by P. Quevauviller, O. Thomas and A. van der Beken C  2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. ISBN: 0-471-49929-3 JWBK117-5.4. data acquisition and handling The system is generally installed for real time advanced process control and monitoring purposes Sensor for inorganic dissolved P and N forms are available in the market 318 JWBK117-5.3. silica and phosphorus. (7) Staining from iron and manganese. The actual choice of the monitoring and control action depends to a great extent on the type of industrial processes and on the water treatment