7 Safety Hazards Accident/incident Personal injury Property damage Equipment failure Direct causes Release of energy and/or hazardous material Indirect causes (symptoms) Unsafe acts Unsafe conditions Policies and decisions Personal factors Environmental factors Basic causes Accident-causes levels. (Courtesy of the Mine Health and Safety Administration.) Potential safet y hazards come from a large numbe r of sources, each posing unique dangers, and also vary great ly in the degree of risk as well as the type of energy that each can relea se when not prevent ed or contr olled. Table 7 .1 provi des a list of a wide range of equipment, tools, sources, etc. that can cause safety hazards. 7.1 EMPHASIS ON HAZARDS The emphasis in this chapter is upon safety hazards. Hazards are defined as sources of danger that could result in a chance event such as an accident. A danger itself is a potential exposure or a liability to injury, pain, or loss. Not all hazards and dangers are the same. Exposure to hazards may be dangerous, but this is dependent on the ß 2008 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. amount of risk that accom panies it. The risk of water contai ned b y a dam is diff erent from being cau ght in a small boat in rapid ly flowing wat er. Risk is the possibil ity of loss or injury or the de gree of the possibility of such loss . Accid ents do not oc cur in a hazardless envir onmen t. If the potential exposure is high, there is a greate r risk that an undesired event will occur. An accide nt is an unplan ned or undesi rable event whose outcom e is normally a trauma. Tr auma is the inju ry to livi ng tissue caused by some outside or extrinsic agent. Trauma is caused by an agent, force, or mechanism impingi ng on the human body (Figur e 7.1). The emphasis here will be to identify the hazard and its danger, and suggest ways to remove, intervene, or mitigate its risk to prevent accidents resulting from the errant uncontrolled release of energy that has a traumatic effect on those who are exposed to that hazard. 7.2 ACCIDENT CAUSES Experts who study accidents often do a breakdown or analysis of the causes. They analyze them at three different levels: TABLE 7.1 Potential Sources of Safety Hazard s Acids Hot processes Power sources Abrasives Forklifts Power tools Biohazards Fumes Pressure vessels Bloodborne pathogens Generators Radiation Blasting Gases Rigging Caustics Hand tools Respirators Chains Hazardous chemical processes Scaffolds Chemicals Hazardous waste Slings Compressed gas cylinders Heavy equipment Solvents Conveyors Hoists Stairways Cranes Hoses Storage facilities Confined spaces Hot items Stored materials Derricks Hot process Transportation equipment Electrical equipment Housekeeping=waste Transportation vehicles Elevators and manlifts Ladders Trucks Emergencies Lasers Unsafe conditions Environmental factors Lifting Unsafe act Excavations Lighting Ventilation Explosives Loads Walkways and roadways Falls Machines Walls and floor openings Fibers Materials Warning devices Fires Mists Welding and cutting Flammables Noise Wire ropes Hazardous waste Platforms Working surfaces High voltage Personal protective equipment ß 2008 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. 1. Direct causes (unplanned relea se of energy and=or hazardo us material) 2. Indirect causes (unsaf e a cts and unsafe condit ions) 3. Basic causes (management safety policies and decisions, and personal factors) 7.2.1 DIRECT CAUSES Most accide nts are caused by the unplan ned or unwanted relea se o f large amoun ts of energy, or of hazardo us mat erials. In a breakdo wn of accide nt causes, the direct cause is the energy or hazardo us mat erial relea sed a t the time of the a ccident. Accident inves tigators are inte rested in fi nding out what the direct cause of an accident is, because this informat ion can be used to help prevent other acciden ts, or to reduce the injuries associ ated wi th them . Energy is classi fied in on e of two ways . It is eith er potential or kinetic energy. Potential energy is de fined as stored energy such as a rock on the top of a hill. There are usual ly tw o compo nents to potent ial energy: the wei ght a nd height of the object. The rock resting at the bott om of the hill h as little potent ial energy as compared to the one at the top of the hill. Some examp les of potential e nergy are represented in Table 7.2. The other classi ficati on is kinet ic energy that is best described as energy motion. Kinetic energy is dependen t upon the mass of the ob ject. Mass is the amoun t of matter making up an object; for examp le, an e lephant has more matter than a mous e, therefore more mass. The weight of an object is a factor of the mass of an object and the pull of gravity on it. Kinetic energy is a funct ion of an object ’ s mass and its speed of movement or velocity. A bullet thrown at you has the same mass as one shot at you, but the difference is in the velocity and there is no doubt as to which has the Hazard Danger Risk More potential risk Release of agent, force, or mechanism Accident/ incident Outcomes Injury Death Illness Intervention/ prevention Safe operations FIGURE 7.1 Potential outcomes from hazards. ß 2008 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. most kinet ic energy or potential to destr oy. So me examp les of kinet ic energy are represented in Tab le 7.3. Energy has many form s and each has its own unique potential for d anger. The forms of energy are press ure, biol ogical, chemical, elect rical, therm al, light, mech- anical, and nuclea r. Tab le 7.4 depicts examp les of each form of energy. If the direc t cause is know n, then equipment , materials, and facilit ies can be redesigned to make them safer , person al prote ction can be provi ded to reduce injuries , and wor kers can be trained to prote ct them selves in hazardo us situati ons. 7.2.2 INDIRECT C AUSES Indirect causes , or symp toms, may be consi dered as contr ibuting facto rs. In most cases, the relea se of excess ive amoun ts of energy or hazardo us materials is caused by unsafe acts or unsafe condition s. Unsafe acts and unsafe condit ions trigge r the release of large amoun ts of energy or hazardo us material s, whi ch direc tly cause the acciden t. Thi s chapte r refers to indi rect causes as symptom s or contr ibuting factors. That is because unsafe acts and unsafe condit ions do not them selve s cause acciden ts. These are just symp toms or indicator s of poor manag ement poli cy, inadequ ate contr ols, lack of or insuf ficient knowledge of existing hazards , or other persona l facto rs. Tables 7.5 and 7.6 depict some examp les of unsafe acts and unsafe conditions. TABLE 7.2 Examples of Potential Energy Compressed gases Hand or power tool Object at rest Liquefied gas Effort to move an object Dust Spring loaded objects Unfallen tree Electrically charged component Radiation source Idling vehicle Chemical source Disengaged equipment Biological organism Flowable material TABLE 7.3 Examples of Kinetic Energy Operating tools or equipment Moving conveyors Flow of materials Running machines Falling objects Running equipment Lifting a heavy object Moving dust Moving vehicles or heavy equipment Tree falling Release of energy from radiation, chemical or biological sources Pinch area from moving objects Energy transfer devices such as pulleys, belts, gears, shears, edgers Running power tools ß 2008 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. 7.2.3 B ASIC C AUSES The cause of most accide nts is indeed a relea se of energy, an unsafe condition , or an unsafe act, but the basic or root c auses of most accidents are found to be more a result of failure to addres s some very speci fic underly ing causes . The se causes fall into three groups : poli cies and decisions, person al facto rs, and envir onmen tal factors depicted in Tab les 7.7, 7.8, and 7 .9, respec tive ly. While we often think of hazardo us acts and condition s as the basic causes of accidents, they are actually symptom s of failure on anothe r level. Unsafe acts and unsafe condit ions can usual ly be trace d to the basic causes : poor manag ement policies and decis ions, and person al facto rs. The first catego ry of basic causes — manag ement safety p olicies and decisions — includes such thin gs as manag ement ’s intent (relative to safet y); product ion and safety goals; staffing procedures; use of records; assignment of responsibility, authority, and accountability; employee selection; training, placement, direction, TABLE 7.4 Forms of Energy and Examples of Their Sources Pressure energy Chemical energy Nuclear energy Pressurized vessel Corrosive materials Alpha particles Caisson work Flammable=combustible Beta particles Explosives materials High energy nuclear Noise Toxic chemicals particles Compressed gases Compressed gases Neutrons Steam source Carcinogens Gamma rays Liquefied gases Confined spaces X-rays Air under pressure Oxidizing materials Diving Reactive materials Thermal (heat) energy Confined spaces Poisonous chemicals Chemical reactions and gases Combustible materials Light energy Explosives Cryogenic materials Intense light Acids and bases Fire Lasers Oxygen deficiency Flames Infrared sources atmosphere Flammable materials Microwaves Fuels Friction Sun Dusts or powders Hot processes Ultraviolet light Hot surfaces Welding Electrical energy Molten metals RF fields Capacitors Steam Radio frequency Transformers Solar Energized circuits Weather phenomena Biological energy Power lines Welding Allergens Batteries Biotoxins Exposed conductors Pathogens Static electricity Poisonous plants Lightning ß 2008 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. TABLE 7.5 Unsafe Acts (95% of all accidents) 1. Operating or using equipment without authorization 2. Failure to prevent unexpected movement 3. Working or operating at unsafe speeds 4. Failure to warn or signal 5. Removing, nullifying, or not using guards 6. Using defective tools or equipment 7. Using tools or equipment unsafely 8. Taking an unsafe position 9. Failure to shut down and lockout 10. Riding equipment 11. Horseplay, startling, or distracting 12. Failure to wear or use personal protective equipment 13. Failure to warn coworkers or to secure equipment 14. Improper lifting 15. Alcohol or drug use 16. Violation of safety and health rules TABLE 7.6 Unsafe Conditions (5% of all accidents) 1. Lack of or inadequate guards 2. Lack of or inadequate warnings or signaling systems 3. Improper storage of flammable or explosives 4. Unexpected start-up conditions 5. Poor housekeeping conditions 6. Protruding objects 7. Congestion conditions 8. Atmospheric conditions 9. Improper placement or stacking 10. Defective tools or equipment 11. General working conditions 12. Improper clothing 13. Radiation exposure 14. Poor illumination 15. Excessive noise 16. Unstable work areas or platforms 17. No firefighting equipment 18. Dangerous soil 19. Hazardous conditions 20. Radiation ß 2008 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. TABLE 7.7 Policies and Decisions Safety policy is not . In writing . Signed by top management . Distributed to each employee . Reviewed periodically Safety procedures do not provide for . Written manuals . Safety meetings . Job safety analysis . Housekeeping . Medical surveillance . Accident investigations . Preventive maintenance . Reports . Safety audits=inspections Safety is not considered in the procurement of . Supplies . Equipment . Services Safety is not considered in the personnel practices of . Selection . Authority . Responsibility . Accountability . Communication . Training . Job observations TABLE 7.8 Personal Factors Physical . Inadequate size . Inadequate strength . Inadequate stamina Experiential . Insufficient knowledge . Insufficient skills . Accident records . Unsafe work practices ( continued) ß 2008 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. and supervision; communications procedures; inspection procedures; equipment, supplies, and facility design; purchasing; maintenance; standard and emergency job procedures; and housekeeping. The second category—personal factors—includes motivation, ability, know- ledge, training, safety awareness, assignments, performance, physical and mental state, reaction time, and personal care. The third category is the actual physical facility design, the unsafe procedures being used, and the geological and climatic conditions. TABLE 7.8 (continued) Personal Factors Motivational . Needs . Capabilities Attitudinal . Toward others . People . Company . Job . Toward self . Alcoholism . Drug use . Emotional upset Behavioral . Risk taking . Lack of hazard awareness TABLE 7.9 Environmental Factors Unsafe facility design . Poor mechanical layout . Inadequate electrical system . Inadequate hydraulic system . Crowded limited access ways . Insufficient illumination . Insufficient ventilation . Lack of noise control Unsafe operating procedures . Normal . Emergency Weather Geographical area ß 2008 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. 7.3 SUMMARY As can be seen, accidents that result because of safety h azards are actually the result of a complex set of events or elements that have come together from nature, human error, and failure of systems that should have protected workers from injury and death. Thus, the emphasis seen in this book and Industrial Safety and Health for Infrastructure Services, Industrial Safety and Health for Administrative Services, and Industrial Safety and Health for People-Oriented Services, is regarding the need for an organized approach to occupational safety and health and the protections and benefits from implementing a well thought out approach to job safety and health. The remainder of this book is directed toward managing, preventing, and controlling hazards that occur within the goods and material service sector of the service industry. This includes the wholesale trade, retail trade, and warehousi ng sectors. ß 2008 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. ß 2008 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. . and death. Thus, the emphasis seen in this book and Industrial Safety and Health for Infrastructure Services, Industrial Safety and Health for Administrative Services, and Industrial Safety and. Services, and Industrial Safety and Health for People-Oriented Services, is regarding the need for an organized approach to occupational safety and health and the protections and benefits from implementing. groups : poli cies and decisions, person al facto rs, and envir onmen tal factors depicted in Tab les 7. 7, 7. 8, and 7 .9, respec tive ly. While we often think of hazardo us acts and condition s