The Ecology of Building Materials This Page Intentionally Left Blank The Ecology of Building Materials Bjørn Berge Translated from Norwegian by Filip Henley With Howard Liddell To my two girls, Sofia Leiresol and Anna Fara Architectural Press OXFORD AUCKLAND BOSTON JOHANNESBURG MELBOURNE NEW DELHI Architectural Press An imprint of Butterworth-Heinemann Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP 225 Wildwood Avenue, Woburn, MA 01801-2041 A division of Reed Educational and Professional Publishing Ltd A member of the Reed Elsevier plc group First published as Bygnings materialenes økologi © Universitetsforlaget AS 1992 First published in Great Britain 2000 Paperback edition 2001 English edition © Reed Educational and Professional Publishing Ltd 2000, 2001 All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced in any material form (including photocopying or storing in any medium by electronic means and whether or not transiently or incidentally to some other use of this publication) without the written permission of the copyright holder except in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 or under the terms of a licence issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London, England W1P 0LP Applications for the copyright holder’s written permission to reproduce any part of this publication should be addressed to the publishers British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress ISBN 7506 5450 For information on all Architectural Press publications visit our website at www.architecturalpress.com Composition by Scribe Design, Gillingham, Kent Printed and bound in Great Britain by The Bath Press, Bath contents Author’s foreword vii Foreword by Howard Liddell ix Preface xi Introduction xiii Important factors in the physics of building materials 58 Section The flower, iron and ocean Raw materials and basic materials Water and air Water Air Section Eddies and water-level markers Environmental profiles and criteria for assessment 65 65 66 69 69 74 81 92 Resources Material resources Energy resources 15 Minerals Metallic minerals Metals in building Non-metallic minerals Non-metallic minerals in building Pollution Types of pollution Reduction of pollution in the production stage Reduction of pollution during building use 25 28 Stone Production of building stone 107 111 Loose materials Loose materials in building Sand and gravel as aggregate in cement products Earth as a building material Brick and other fired clay products 117 119 121 121 128 Fossil oils The basic materials Plastics in building 141 144 147 10 Plants Living plants Timber Grasses and other small plants Building chemicals from plants Cellulose 157 161 163 174 176 178 Local production and the human ecological aspect The production process, product quality and the quality of work Technology Economy and efficiency 34 35 43 45 48 49 The chemical and physical properties of building materials 53 A small introduction to the chemistry of building materials 54 vi Contents 11 Materials of animal origin 179 12 Industrial by-products 183 Section The construction of a sea-iron flower Building materials 13 Structural materials Metal structures Concrete structures Stone structures Structural brickwork Earth structures Plastic structures Timber structures Peat walls The energy and material used by different structural systems 189 191 192 200 203 209 221 222 237 14 Climatic materials Thermal insulation materials Warmth-reflecting materials Moisture-regulating materials Air-regulating materials Snow as a climatic material Metal-based materials Materials based on non-metallic minerals Fired clay materials Earth and sand as climatic materials Bitumen-based materials Plastic materials Timber materials Peat and grass materials Materials based on animal products Materials based on recycled textiles 243 244 247 248 253 255 258 259 270 272 275 276 278 287 297 305 15 Surface materials Metal surface materials 307 310 238 Non-metallic surface materials (pre-formed or applied) Stone surface materials Fired clay sheet materials Earth surface materials Plastic-based sheet materials Living plant surfaces Wall cladding with plants Timber sheet materials Straw and grass sheet materials Soft floor coverings Wallpapers 311 318 323 327 327 328 337 338 355 361 366 16 Building components Windows and doors Stairs 375 375 382 17 Fixings and connections Mechanical fixings Chemical binders 385 385 389 18 Paint, varnish, stain and wax The main ingredients of paint Paints with mineral binders Paints with organic binders 401 404 411 415 19 Impregnating agents, and how to avoid them Choosing quality material Structural protection of exposed components Methods of impregnation Oxidizing and exposure to the sun Non-poisonous surface coats Poisonous surface-coats or impregnation The least dangerous impregnating substances 431 433 434 434 Index 443 429 430 435 438 author’s foreword The Ecology of Building Materials came out originally in 1992 in Scandinavia It has now been revised and adapted for the English-speaking world The book is far-reaching in its subject matter: too far, maybe, for some readers There may well be the inevitable mistake or certain inaccuracies, if one dissects the information On discovery of any such mistakes, I would greatly appreciate the corrected information being sent to me via the publishers, so any new editions will not repeat the same mistake Any other comments, additions or ideas are also very welcome Many have helped me in preparing this new edition, first and foremost my colleagues in our two Norwegian offices, Gaia Lista and Gaia Oslo Howard Liddell in Gaia Scotland has given a great deal of worthwhile and necessary help in the preparation of the English edition I would also like to thank those who have read through the whole or part of the manuscript and given me useful comments and corrections, among them: Dag Roalkvam, Varis Bokalders, Jørn Siljeholm, Hans Granum, Arne Næss, Karl Georg Høyer, Geir Flatabø, Peer Richard Neeb, Odd Øvereng and Tom Heldal And I would like to give an extra special thank you to the Translator, Filip Henley He has achieved a use of language that surpasses the Norwegian original Bjørn Berge Lista, 1999 This Page Intentionally Left Blank foreword The Ecology of Building Materials is a seminal contribution to the built environment survival kit This important reference source has been confined to the Nordic countries for too long and I am delighted to be involved in its introduction to the English-speaking readership It is one of a select but growing group of “Tools for Action” towards a sustainable construction industry There is a long tradition of books that have been influential catalysts towards a change in attitudes to our human habitat I believe, for example, that the 20th century environmental movement was catapulted into centre stage by Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring in 1966 It was, however, side-tracked into an obsession with energy issues during the 70’s and 80’s It is only since the Rio Summit in ’92 that the epidemic scale losses of natural bio-diversity, and the realisation of the criticality of toxicity, in all its forms (including inappropriate and polluting forms or fuel), have led to the re-discovery of our inappropriate relationship with our planet I would like to think that this book will have an impact on the building industry as effective as that which Carson had on agriculture We have all become aware of the benefits of healthy eating even if we not practice it as well as we should, but how far has even the awareness of toxicity in buildings penetrated the public’s conscious perception of the places in which they spend 90% of their lives? Sick Building Syndrome is, however, a generalised catch-all in the mind of the public at large – but it is already the case that they are expecting their environment to be free of risk and they are asking for the industry to sign on the dotted line to that effect In such circumstances the precautionary principle appears to be inevitable and specifying benign a pre-requisite Therefore we need the tools to the job Understanding the life cycle of the materials we use every day has never been more complicated, and therefore its ready interpretation was never more essential As a major consumer of both primary and secondary resources and a major producer of waste, the construction industry has been made well aware of its responsibilities with regard to its enormous potential contribution to sustainable development, and its part in the threat to all human existence if it fails to meet the challenge It is important therefore that it acquires the expertise now and not at some unidentified time in the future to lessen its impact This book is a significant source in the wide range needed for immediate and effective action Impregnating agents, and how to avoid them 439 Extraction of wood tar in a charcoal stack The stack is dug out in a sloping piece of ground The bottom is shaped like a funnel and covered with birch bark A pipe made out of a hollowed branch is placed in the bottom of the funnel The timber is split into sticks about 18–20 cm long and cm thick and they are stacked radially round a strong central log The stack is then covered with earth and turf, and lit at the bottom The stack is allowed to smoulder for up to 24 hours, depending upon its size The tar gathers in the funnel and can be removed through the wooden pipe Wood tar can be used pure or mixed with boiled or raw linseed oil in a proportion of 1:1; pigment can also be added Wood tar extracted from pine trees contains considerable amounts of polycyclical aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) substances, for example benzo-a-pyrene, which is a well-known mutagen and carcinogen Tar from beech is almost free from these substances Bark extract Bark extract often has borax and soda salt added to increase its antiseptic effect The extract is poisonous to insects and fungus, even though somewhat weak It is not dangerous to humans Bark extract is not waterproof, and is most useful on exposed materials indoors Extract based on birch bark has the best impregnating properties (See also ‘Recipe 2: Bark stain’ p 425.) Wood vinegar Wood vinegar is corrosive and is not used as a preventative but for treating materials that have already been attacked by rot and insects Wood vinegar is extracted by distillation from deciduous trees, although even coniferous trees contain wood vinegar, but in smaller quantities Soda and potash lye These have been used for surface treatment in many Swiss villages for hundreds of years, and the buildings have kept very well A drier climate is, of course, partly responsible for their success, but this treatment deserves discussion Impregnation with lye brings the resins and tar to the surface of the wood in the same way as burning The lye also has an antiseptic effect The treatment has to be repeated every two to three years Gloves and glasses should be worn during the treatment, as the material is very alkaline 440 The Ecology of Building Materials Recipe for lye made from soda and potash The soda solution is made by boiling litres of water with 250 g of soda powder The liquid is applied when still warm Potash solution is either based on pure potassium carbonate or on wood ashes, which contain about 96 per cent potassium carbonate A potash solution is made up by boiling up 2.5 litres of pine ash with litres of water and letting it simmer for 15 minutes The solution is sieved and applied while still warm Bor salts from borax and boracid These impregnating substances combine effectiveness against vermin with relative harmlessness to humans The emission period from an impregnated surface is as short as 10 hours, so the interior of a building will be risk-free after a couple of days In Germany borax is the only one of the more effective poisons used indoors It is also used to impregnate cellulose insulating materials where it also acts as a fire retardant It is, however, quite easily washed out of materials Borax is bought as powder, and usually used as a 5–10 per cent solution in warm water applied in two coats Very dry timber is moistened first so that the borax will penetrate better Green vitriol Green vitriol is a relatively harmless impregnating substance based on ferric sulphate In liquid form it can irritate the skin and is slightly damaging to organisms living in water A good impregnating solution consists of 10–13 g/litre of water, with a little alum added as a fix Green vitriol is also a fire retardant and gives timber a shiny silver surface It is often called acid treatment Such a treatment can last up to 15 years but will in time be washed out of the timber References GODAL J B, Tre til tekking og kledning, Landbruksforlaget, Oslo 1994 GUSTAFSSON H, Kemisk emission från byggnadsmaterial, Statens Provningsanstalt, Borås 1990 JOHANNSSON G, Kvalitetskrav på byggnadsvirke, Byggforskningsrådet Rapport 105, Stockholm 1990 NORGES BYGGFORSKNINGSINSTITUTT, Luftede kledninger og fuger Påkjenninger, prinsipper og virkemåter, Byggdetaljer A 542.003, Oslo 1989 Section 3: Further reading ADDLESON L, Materials for building, London 1976 ASHURST J et al, Stone in building Its use and potential today, London 1977 BECKLY A, Handbook of painting and decorating products, London 1983 BERG A, Skifertekking og skiferkledning, Forening til Norske Fortidsminnesmerkes Bevaring, Årsberetning, Oslo 1945 BILLGREN G et al, Träfönsterets beständighet, Byggforskningsrådet, Stockholm 1977 Impregnating agents, and how to avoid them BOISITS R, Dämmstoffe auf der ökologischen Prüfstand, IBO, Wien 1991 BOKALDERS V, Byggekologi 1–4, Byggtjänst, Stockholm 1997 BRÄNNSTRÖM H, Torv och spån som isolermaterial, Byggforskningsrådet R 149:1985, Stockholm 1985 DANCY H K, A manual on building construction, Intermediate Technology Publications, London 1975 DAVEY N, A history of Building Materials, London 1961 DREJER C et al, Färg och måleri, Byggförlaget, Stockholm 1992 EISNER K et al, Some experiences in research and manufacture of panels from agricultural waste and non-wood fibrous raw materials in Chzechoslovakia, Wien 1970 ENGLUND A, Zostera marina, isoleringsmatta och vattenrenare, Ekoteknik, Östersund 1993 GRAUBNER W, Encyclopedia of wood joints, Tannton Books, Newtown 1992 GRÜTZMACHER B, Reet- und Strohdächer Alte Techniken Wiederbelebt, Callwey Verlag, München 1981 GRỈE T, Breathing Building Constructions, Oklahoma 1974 HOUBEN H et al, Earth Construction A comprehensive guide, Intermediate Technology Publications, London 1994 HUSE A, Kartlegging av helse- og miljøskadelige stoffer i maling, lakk, lim m.v., SFT rapp 92:09, Oslo 1992 KESSEL M H et al, Untersuchungen der trägfähigkeit von Holzverbindungen mit Holznägeln, Bauen mit Holz 6/1994 KOMAR A, Building materials and components, Moscow 1974 KÖNIG H L, Unsichtbare Umwelt Der Mensch im Spielfeld Elektromagnetischer Feldkräfte, München 1986 LAURICIO J O et al, Fabrication of hollow block from agri-forestry materials for low cost housing, Appr Techn Vol no 2, 1978 LEWIS G et al, Natural Vegetable fibre as reinforcement in concrete sheets, Magazine of concrete research 31/1979 LIDDLE H et al, Pore-ventilation: Sports Halls, The Scottish Sports Council, Research Report no 43, Edinburgh 1995 LINDBERG C O et al, Jordhusbygge, Stockholm 1950 441 LUNT M G, Stabilized Soil Blocks for Building, Overseas Building Notes no 184, Watford 1980 LÅG J, Berggrunn, jord og jordsmonn, Oslo 1979 MCDONALD S O, A Straw Bale Primer, private edition, Gila New Mexico 1991 MCINTOSH J D, Concrete mixes for blocks, Concrete Building and Concrete Products 1965 MINKE G, Der Baustoff Lehm und seine Anwendung, Ökobuch Verlag, Freiburg 1994 MOESSON T J, Production of strawboards by the ‘Stramit’-process, Vienna 1970 MUIR D et al, The energy economics and thermal performance of log houses, Quebec 1983 NORGES BYGGFORSKNINGSINST, Materialer til luft og damptetting, Byggforskserien A573.121, Oslo 1986 NILSSON L, Armering av betong med sisal och andra växtfibrer, Byggforskning rapp D14:1975, Stockholm 1975 PISTULKA W et al, Baukonstruktionen und Baustoffe, Wien 1982 PROCKTER N J, Climbing and screening plants, Rushden 1983 RISOM S, Lerhuse, stampede og soltørrede, Copenhagen 1952 ROAF S et al, The ice-houses of Britain, Routledge, London 1990 ROALKVAM D, Naturlig ventilasjon, NABU/Norsk Forskningsråd, Oslo 1997 RYBCZYNSKI W et al, Sulphur concrete and very low cost housing, Canadian sulphur symposium, Calgary 1974 STEEN S A, The strawbale house, New York 1994 STERLING P E R (Ed.), Earth Sheltered Housing Design, New York 1979 STOCKLUND B, Læsøgården, Nationalmuseet, Copenhagen 1962 STULZ R, Appropriate Building Materials, SKAT, St Gallen 1983 VERMASS C H, The manufacture of particle board based on unconventional raw materials, Hannover 1981 VOLHARD F, Leichtlehmbau, C F Müller, Karlsruhe 1988 VREIM H, Takspon og spontekking, stikker, flis og sjingel, Foreningen til Norske Fortidsminnesmerkers Bevaring, Årbok, Oslo 1941 VREIM H, Laftehus, tømring og torvtekking, Oslo 1966 WIESLANDER G, Water Based Paints Occupational Exposure and some Health Effects, Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis, Uppsala 1995 This Page Intentionally Left Blank Index Absorption principle, 250–3 hygroscopic materials, 251–3 Acid pollutants, 32 Acrylate: adhesive, 395 paint, 416 Adhesives, 391–9 animal glues, 395–7 mineral adhesives, 393–4 plant glues, 397–9 synthetic resins, 394–5 Adobe (earth blocks), 217–18 Aerogel, 267 Aggregates, 194–5, 263–4 stabilizing aggregates, 210–11 Air, 66–7 Air cavity, 253 Air moisture, 249–53 Air permeability, 59 Air-regulating materials, 243, 253–5 external windbreaks, 253–5 See also Climatic materials Airtight membranes, 254–5 Alcohols, 146 Aldehydes, 146 Aliphatic hydrocarbons, 144–5 Alkenes, 146 Alkyde oil, 416–17 Alpha radiation, 55 Aluminium, 73, 74, 77–8, 191 as climatic material, 259 doors, 382 windows, 382 Amines, 146 Ammonia, 66–7 Anhydrite, 90 Animal products, 179–81 as climatic materials, 297–305 glue, 395–7 paint, 418–19 Aromatic hydrocarbons, 144–5 Arsenic, 81 Asbestos, 86, 92 use on turf roofs, 334 Asphalt, 141, 143, 144 Assembly for disassembly (ADISA), 12–15 Atomic weight, 54 Bakelite plastic, 149 Ball test, 125 Bark extract, 439 Batten flooring, 350 Bauxite, 73, 77–8 Beeswax, 180, 426 Bentonite, 335 Beta radiation, 55 Binders, 389–99 cement, 94–7 concrete, 193–4 lime, 86, 92 mortars, 202, 325–6, 389–91 paint, 404 Birch bark, 287 use on turf roofs, 334 Bitumen, 144 as climatic material, 275 use on turf roofs, 334 Blast furnace slag, 95, 96, 185 444 Blood albumin glue, 397 Blue clay, Boarding: from waste products, 361 peat, 295–7 plant materials, 359–61 cellulose, 286–7 timber, 351–5 Bogpeat, See Peat Bolts, 386–7, 388 Bor salts, 440 Boracid, 440 Borax, 92, 440 Boron, 86 Brass, 79 Breathing walls, 255 Bricks, 119, 120, 128–34, 205, 323 as climatic material, 270 as structural material, 203–9 smaller brick structures, 208–9 floors, 326–7 history, 128–9 manufacture, 129–34 drying, 131 energy consumption, 138–9 firing, 131–4 forming, 130 recycling, 139, 207–8 stairs, 384 Bronze, 78–9 Bulwark, 229 Butadiene, 395 Cadmium, 80 Calcium silicate sheets, 315, 316 Caoutchouc, 157–8 Carbon, 58, 75, 76 Carbon dioxide, 32, 142, 160–1 Carpets, 364–6 Casein, 180 glue, 397 paint, 419 Cast iron, 75 stairs, 384 Casting, 102–3 Cavity walls, 253 Cellulose, 158, 178 as climatic material, 278–9, 285–7 cellulose fibre, 285–6 cellulose paper and boards, 286–7 Index glue, 398 paint, 423 sheeting, 312–13, 315 Cement, 83, 86, 92–100, 121 additives, 97, 98 as climatic material, 260, 262–4 earth stabilization, 211 energy use in production, 99–100 history, 93–4 hydraulic binders, 94–6 non-hydraulic binders, 96–7 pollution and, 97–9 render, 318 lime cement render, 318 roof materials, 312, 313 sheeting, 315 See also Concrete Cement paints, 415 Centralization, 50 Ceramic tiles, 119, 120, 135–8, 323–4, 325 manufacture, 136 Chalk, 57, 86 Chamotte, 131 Chemical oxygen depletion (COD), 33 Chemical properties of building materials, 53–8 chemical reactions: supply and release of energy, 56–7 weights of different substances, 55–6 radioactivity, 55 relative atomic weight, 54 Chipboard, 340, 351–2, 354 Chlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), 145, 276, 376 Chlorinated hydrocarbons, 145 Chlorofluorocarbons, 145–6 Chloroprene, 395 Cholofonium, 177, 422 Chrome, 73, 74, 80 Cladding, 307 ceramic tiles, 325 eelgrass, 359 grass, 357 living plants, 337 metals, 310 stone, 322 straw, 358 timber, 345–9 wall tiles laid in mortar, 325 See also Sheeting Index Clay, 95, 119, 120, 128 as climatic material, 270–2, 274 calcined, 95 expanded clay production, 136–8 surface materials, 323–7 See also Bricks; Ceramic tiles Clay blocks, 205 Cleft log roof, 342–3 Climatic materials, 243–306 air-regulating materials, 253–5 animal products, 297–305 bitumen-based materials, 275 earth/sand, 272–5 fired clay materials, 270–2 foamed quartz, 267 foamglass, 268 fossil meal products, 265 grass materials, 287–92 gypsum products, 264–5 metal-based materials, 258–9 moisture-regulating materials, 248–53 montmorillonite, 269–70 peat materials, 287–9, 292–7 perlite products, 265–6 plastic materials, 276–8 pumice products, 265–6 recycled textiles, 305–6 snow, 255–8 synthetic mineral wool fibres, 268–9 thermal insulation, 244–7 timber materials, 278–87 vermiculite products, 266–7 warmth-reflecting materials, 247–8 Climbing plants, 162–3 Coal tar, 144, 334 Cobalt, 5, 81 Collagen, 396 Compressive strength, 59 earth building, 126–7 Concrete, 121, 192–9 as climatic material, 260, 262–4 aerated concrete, 262–3 foamed concrete, 262 with light aggregate, 263–4 composition, 193–6 additives, 195 aggregates, 194–5 binders, 193–4 lime sandstone, 196 reinforcement, 195 445 sulphur concrete, 196 durability, 196–7 floor coverings, 313–14 recycling, 197–9 roof materials, 311, 312 stairs, 384 Condensation, 250 See also Moisture-regulating materials Copal, 157 Copper, 73, 74, 78–9 as climatic material, 259 extraction, Cork oak, 282 Corrosion, 74 protection against, 76–7 Craftsmen, 43–4 Creosote, 436, 438 Critical minerals, Crown glass, 103 Decentralized production, 18, 49 Dibutyl phthalate (DBP), 395 Dichloroethane, 145 Dolomite, 90 Doors, 375 aluminium, 382 plastic, 382 timber, 380–2 Double curved shells, 236 Down-cycling, 143 Dry-stone walling, 202 Drying oils, 177 Durability, 8–10 climate effects on, 9–10 concrete, 196–7 plastic products, 154–6 timber, 171–2 Dust: carpets and, 365 pollution, 28 Earth building, 120, 121–8, 209–21 climatic properties, 273–4 construction methods, 212–20 adobe (earth blocks), 217–18 pisè (earth ramming technique), 212–17 earth preparation, 127 earth surface materials, 327 efficiency of, 220–1 446 Earth building (contd) history, 123–4 indoor climate and, 221 moisture and shrinkage, 127 raw materials, 124–5, 210 stabilizing aggregates and other additives, 210–12 technical properties, 125–7 Earth loaves, 219–20 Ecological building industry, principles for, 49–52 Economical construction, 7–8 Eelgrass, 358–9 Efficiency, 50 of earth building, 220–1 Electromagnetic radiation, 33–4 Elements, 54, 58 Emulsion paint, 423–4 Endothermic reactions, 57 Energised water, 66 Energy consumption: cement production and, 99–100 fired clay products and, 119, 138–9 in building materials, 16–17 in metal extraction, 71 reduction of in building industry, 18–24 stone production and, 110 structural systems, 238–42 Energy pollution, 25–6 Energy recovery, 12 Energy resources, 15–24 See also Energy consumption Engineer-run production, 44–5 Epoxide: adhesive, 395 paint, 416 Esters, 146 Ether alcohols, 146 Etheric oils, 177 Ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) adhesive, 394, 395 Eutrophicating substances, 33 Exothermic reactions, 57 Extended earth tubes, 220 Extinction rate, 25 Extraction: loose materials, 119 metals, 71 Index aluminium, 77–8 copper, 79 iron, 75–6 zinc, 79 non-metallic minerals, 83–4 raw materials for earth building, 124–5 stone, 110–11, 112–13, 200 Felt products, 298 Fertilizer pollution, 33 Fibreboard, 352, 353–4 Fibreglass, 268 Figure-of-eight test, 125–6 Fillers, 391, 399 paint, 410 Fired clay materials, See Bricks; Ceramic tiles; Clay Fish oil, 421–2 Fixings, 385–9 metal, 387–9 timber, 386–7 Flagstones, 201 Flashings, 335–6 Flax, 159 Flint, Float glass, 103, 376 Floating floors, 350 Floor base, 351 Floors, 235, 308–10, 311 concrete coverings, 313–14 fired clay materials, 325–6 bricks laid in sand, 326–7 tiles laid in mortar, 325–6 floating, 350 health and, 309–10 metals, 310 peatstone floor tiles, 314 soft coverings, 361–6 carpets/textiles, 364–6 linoleum, 361–2 natural rubber (latex), 362–3 plastic, 363 synthetic rubber, 363–4 stone materials, 320, 322–3 timber, 349–51 Fly-ash, 185 Foamed concrete, 262 Foamed quartz, 267 Foamglass, 260, 268 Index Forestry, 164–71 drying, 170–1 felling, 168 splitting, 168–70 storage, 168 See also Timber Formaldehyde adhesives, 394–5 Fossil meal, 91, 95, 129–30, 185 as climatic material, 265, 271 Foundations, 228–30 Fungi, 429–30 Fungicides, paint, 410–11 Galvanized steel sheeting, 258 Galvanizing, 76–7 Gamma radiation, 55 Gangnailplates, 388 Gas diffusion, 255 Gas resources, 15 Gelatine, 396 Genetic pollution, 34 Geodesic domes, 236–7 Glass, 100–5, 376–7 foamglass, 260 history, 100–1 production of, 102–5 casting, 102–3 crown glass, 103 ecological aspects, 104–5 float glass, 103 machine glass, 103 smelting, 102 table glass, 103 Glasswool, 260, 268, 269 Global recycling, 14–15 Global warming potential (GWP), 32 Glues, See Adhesives Glycerols, 177 Gold, 81 Granite, 69, 319, 320 Grasses, 162, 174–6 as climatic materials, 287–92 loose fill, 289–90 matting, 291 straw bales, 290–1 strawboards, 291–2 cladding, 357 cultivating and harvesting, 175 grass sheet materials, 355–7 447 preparation, 175–6 turf, 161–2 roofs, 328–37 Gravel, 108, 119, 121, 194 Green soap, 426–7 Green vitriol, 440 Greenhouse effect, 16, 32, 159 Greenhouse gases, 32 Ground moisture, 249 Guillotining, stone, 114 Gypsum, 83, 90, 97, 183–4, 315–16 as climatic material, 264–5 render, 318 Heat capacity, 59 Heavy metals, 27, 28 Hedge plants, 162, 163 Hindsight principle, 34 Hoffman kiln, 133 Hygroscopic materials, 251–3 Hyperlite, 266 Ice, 66 Igneous stones, 107 Impregnation, 433–4 pH-regulating, 435 poisonous, 435–8 Industrial by-products, 183–5 Insect pests, 429–30 Insulation, See Temperature-regulating materials Iron, 73, 74–7 corrosion protection, 76–7 extraction, 75–6 stairs, 384 Isocyanate adhesive, 395 Joints, 386 Kaolin, 83 Ketones, 146 Kilns, 131–4, 136–7 Laminate products, 340 Latex floor coverings, 362–3 Lazure, 402 Lead, 73, 74, 79–80 as climatic material, 259 pollution, 72 448 Leichtlehm, 289–90 Lignin, 177 Lime, 57, 84, 86–90, 92–100 binders, 86, 92 calcined, 95 earth stabilization, 211 history, 93–4 hydraulic, 95 pozzolana cements, 95–6 renders, 312, 316, 317–18 lime cement render, 318 Nepalesian render, 317 on earth walls, 317 pozzolana render, 317–18 slaking, 87–90, 95 Lime paint, 412–14 Lime sandstone, 196 Limestone, 83 Linoleum, 361–2 Linseed oil, 419–21 putty, 292 Log construction, 231–2 Loose materials, 117–21 See also Clay; Earth building; Gravel; Sand Loss factor, Lye, 439–40 Machine glass, 103 Magnesium, 73, 74, 81, 84 Manganese, 80 Manufacturing methods, 43–5 Marsh-prairie grass, 334 Masonry, 202–3 Mastics: bituminous, 275 plastic, 276, 277 Material pollution, 25, 26 Material resources, 5–15 in world context, 15 reduction of use of, 7–15 economical construction, 7–8 high durability, 8–10 in production process, 6–7 reduced loss of building materials, See also Recycling use in structural systems, 238–42 Matting, 291, 295, 297–8 Index Metals, 69–81 climatic materials, 258–9 fixings, 387–9 recycling, 71, 73–4 reserves, 73–4 structural materials, 191–2 surface materials, 310–11 See also Specific metals Metamorphic stones, 107 Mica, 91, 266 Mineral adhesives, 393–4 Moisture, 248–9 air moisture, 249–53 infestation and, 431–3 Moisture-regulating materials, 243, 248–53 air moisture, 249–53 absorption principle, 250–3 air cavity method, 253 vapour barriers, 250 See also Climatic materials Monomaterials, 14 Montmorillonite, 91, 261, 269–70 Moraine, 117 Mortars, 202, 325–6, 389–91 Moss, 293–5 Nailed floors, 350 Nails, 387–8 Naphtha, 145, 147 Natural fibres, earth stabilization, 211 Nepalesian lime rendering, 317 Nickel, 80 Nitric oxide, 32 Nitrogen, 66 Noise-regulating materials, 243 See also Climatic materials Non-renewable resources, Non-usable resources, Nuclear power, 15–16 Oil, 5, 141–4 products, 144–7 resources, 15, 142 See also Plastics Olefines, 146 Open charcoal kilns, 132–3 Ores, 70–1 Oxidization, of timber, 434 Oxygen, 66–7 Index Ozone-reducing substances, 28–32, 145–6 Packaging, Paint, 401–24 application, 404 cellulose paints, 423 cement paints, 415 drying oils, 419–22 emulsion, 423–4 history, 403–4 ingredients, 404–11 additives, 409–11 binders, 404 pigments, 406–9 solvents, 404–6 lime paint, 412–14 natural resins, 422–3 protein glue paint, 418–19 silicate paints, 414–15 starch paint, 423 synthetic resins, 415–18 tar, 422 Panelling, 345, 346–7, 431–2 Paper, as climatic material, 279, 286 wool-based, 298–9 See also Wallpapers Paper plastics, 276, 277 Parquet, 351 Peat: as climatic material, 287–9, 292–7 external waterproofing, 295 matting, 295 moss, 293–5 peat blocks, 293 peat boards, 295–7 peat fibres, 293 walls, 237 Peatstone floor tiles, 314 Perlite, 91, 265–6 Permeability: air, 59 vapour, 60 Permetrine, 436, 438 pH values, 65 regulating surface coats, 435 Phaedomorphosis, 48 Phenol, 394 Photochemical oxidizing agents, 33 449 Photochemical ozone creation potential (POCP), 33 Phthallic acid esters, 146 Physical properties of building materials, 58–60 Pigments, 406–9 Pins, 386–7 Pisè (earth ramming technique), 212–17 Plank roof, 343 Plant materials: boarding, 359–61 concrete reinforcement, 195 glues, 397–9 See also Cellulose; Starch Plants, 157–78 building chemicals from, 176–8 climbing plants, 162–3 hedges, 162, 163 indoor, 338 turf, 161–2 roofs, 328–37 wall cladding, 337–8 See also Grasses; Timber Plasterboard, 315, 316 Plastics, 141, 142, 147–56 as climatic materials, 276–8 insulation materials, 277–8 mastics, 276, 277 sealing strips, 277, 278 as structural materials, 221–2 as surface materials, 327–8 cellulose-based, 178 doors, 382 durability, 154–6 floor coverings, 363 pollution and, 142, 143, 149–52 recycling, 143, 156, 278 use on turf roofs, 335 wallpapers, 368 windows, 382 Plywood, 354–5 Podel mixture, 274 Pollution, 25–41 acid substances, 32 cement products and, 97–9 dust, 28 electromagnetic radiation, 33–4 environmental poisons, 28 eutrophicating substances, 33 450 Pollution (contd) fired clay products and, 119, 120 forests and, 159 genetic pollution, 34 glass production and, 104–5 greenhouse gases, 32 metals and, 72 extraction, 71 ozone-reducing substances, 28–32 photochemical oxidizing agents, 33 physical encroachment of nature, 34 plastics and, 142, 143, 149–52 reduction of during building use, 35–41 reduction of in production stage, 34–5 Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), 145, 276, 376 Polycyclical aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), 35, 144, 275 Polyethylene (PE), 152, 276, 277 Polyisobutyl sheeting, 276 Polymers, 149 Polyolephine floor coverings, 363 Polypropylene (PP), 152, 276, 277 Polystyrene (PS), 152 Polyurethane (PUR), 153 adhesive, 395 paint, 416 Polyvinyl acetate (PVAC): adhesive, 394, 395 paint, 417–18 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), 149, 153–4, 276, 277 Portland cement, 92, 93, 95–6 pozzolana cements, 96 Potash, 439–40 Potassium carbonate, 177–8 Potassium chloride, 83, 91 Pozzolana cements, 93, 94, 100 earth stabilization, 211 lime pozzolana render, 317–18 Portland, 96 Primary energy consumption (PEC), 16, 25 Primary relationship, 45–8 Production process, 43–8 economy and efficiency, 49–52 primary relationship, 45–8 technology and, 48–9 Pumice, 265–6 Purple snail, 181 Index Quarrying, 112–13 Quartz, 83 foamed quartz, 267 Radioactive pollution, 33–4 Radioactivity, 55 Raft and pile foundations, 229–30 Rain, 249 Raw materials: reserves, 3, metals, 73–4 resources, Re-use, 11, 14 Recycling, 6, 7, 10–15, 40 assembly for disassembly (ADISA), 12–15 bricks, 139, 207–8 concrete, 197–9 levels, 11–12 metals, 71, 73–4 plastics, 143, 156, 278 textiles, 305–6 timber, 172–4 Reinforced concrete, 195 Relative atomic weight, 54 Renders, 312, 316–18 cement, 318 gypsum, 318 lime, 312, 316, 317–18 sulphur, 318 Renewable resources, 3, 7, 19 Reserves, of raw materials, 3, metals, 73–4 Resins: natural, 422–3 synthetic: adhesives, 394–5 paints, 415–18 Resources, 3–24 See also Energy resources; Material resources Rockwool, 260, 268–9 Roofs, 235–7, 307 concrete tiles, 311 fired clay materials, 323, 324–5 grass cladding, 357 metals, 310–11 non-metallic materials, 312–13 slate tiles, 319, 320–2 Index thatch, 355, 357–9 timber, 235–7, 341–5 cleft log roof, 342–3 plank roof, 343 shakes, 344 shingles, 344 Sutak roof, 343 turf roofs, 328–37 Rotating kilns, 136–7 Rubber floor coverings: latex, 362–3 synthetic, 363–4 Russian glass, 100 Rye flour filler, 399 Sand, 119, 121, 194 as climatic material, 274 use in brick manufacture, 129 Sandbag technique, 220 Sawdust, 280–2 Screws, 388 Sealed unit glazing, 376, 377 Sealing strips, 277, 278 Secondary relationship, 45 Sedimentary stones, 107 Self-climbing plants, 162 Shakes, 344, 347–8 Sheeting, 314–16 calcium silicate, 315 cellulose roof sheeting, 312–13 cement-based, 315 galvanized steel, 258 plasterboard, 315 plastic-based sheet materials, 327–8 polyisobutyl, 276 stainless steel, 258 timber sheet materials, 338–55 Shell structures, 235–7 double curved shells, 236 geodesic domes, 236–7 Shingles, 344, 347–8 Silica dioxide, 85 Silicates, 177 dust, 185 paints, 414–15 Silicic acid, 267 Silicone, 90 Silicum dioxide, 90 Slaked lime, 87–90, 95 451 Slate, 108 sorting/cutting, 114–15 tiles, 318–19, 320–2 Smelting, 102 Smog, 33 Snail, purple, 181 Snow, as climatic material, 255–8 Soap, 426–7 Soda, 439–40 Sodium chloride, 83, 91 Solvents, 144, 147 paint, 404–6 Soya glue, 398 Stainless steel sheeting, 258 Stains, 401–3, 424–6 Stairs, 382–4 Starch, 158, 177 glue, 398–9 paint, 423 Static electricity, carpets and, 365 Stave construction, 232 Steel, 74–7, 191 concrete reinforcement, 195 corrosion protection, 76–7 galvanized steel sheeting, 258 stainless steel sheeting, 258 Stone, 7, 69, 107–16, 200–3 as surface material, 318–23 floor covering, 322–3 roof covering, 320–2 wall cladding, 322 crushed stone, 115–16, 194 dividing/cutting, 113–14 extraction, 110–11, 112–13, 200 stairs, 383–4 Stovewood houses, 232 Straw, 355 bales, 290–1 cladding, 358 strawboards, 360 thatch, 355, 357–8 Strawboards, 291–2 Structural materials, 189–242 bricks, 203–9 concrete, 192–9 earth structures, 209–21 energy/material use, 238–42 environmental profiles, 242 metal structures, 191–2 452 Structural materials (contd) peat walls, 237 plastics, 221–2 protection from infestation, 431–3 stone, 200–3 timber, 222–37 Styrene, 395 Sugar, 158 Sulphur, 91, 184–5 concrete, 196 render, 318 Sulphur dioxide, 32, 142, 184 Surface materials, 307–73 earth, 327 floor coverings, 313–14, 322–3, 361–6 living plant surfaces, 328–38 turf roofs, 328–37 wall cladding, 337–8 metals, 310–11 render, 316–18 roofing materials, 312–13, 320, 328–37, 341–5 sheeting, 314–16 fired clay sheet materials, 323–7 grass sheet materials, 355–7, 358–9 plastic-based sheet materials, 327–8 timber sheet materials, 338–55 stone, 318–23 straw, 355–6, 357–9, 360 wallpapers, 366–73 See also Cladding Sutak roof, 343 Table glass, 103 Tar, 141, 143, 144 use on turf roofs, 334 wood tar, 157, 176–7, 422, 438–9 Technology, 48–9 Temperature-regulating materials, 243, 244–8 thermal insulation materials, 244–7 dynamic insulation (DI), 244–6 insulation value, 246–7 static insulation (SI), 244 warmth-reflecting materials, 247–8 See also Climatic materials Tensile strength, 59 earth building, 125 Terrazzo floor tiles, 314 Index Textiles: floor coverings, 364–6 wallpapers, 366–8 Thatch, 355, 357 eelgrass, 358–9 straw, 357–8 Thermal conductivity, 59 Thermal insulation, See Temperatureregulating materials Thermoplastics, 149 Thermosetting plastics, 149 Timber, 157, 163–74, 222–37 as climatic material, 278–87 birch bark, 287 cellulose fibre, 285–6 cellulose paper and boards, 286–7 cork oak, 282 sawdust, 280–2 wood fibre boards, 285 wood shavings, 280–2 woodwool cement, 282–5 as surface material, 338–55 boarding, 351–5 cladding, 345–9 doors, 380–2 durability, 171–2 fixings, 386–7 floor structures, 235, 349–51 foundations, 228–30 history, 223 protective measures, 430–2 burning the outer wood, 434 cleaning out the contents of the cells, 433 least dangerous impregnating substances, 438–40 non-poisonous surface coats, 434–5 oxidizing and sun exposure, 434 poisonous surface coats, 435–8 self-impregnation, 433 recycling, 172–4 roof structures, 235–7, 341–5 stairs, 382–3 structural elements, 223–6 walls, 231–4, 345–9 tropical timber, 159–61 windows, 377–80 See also Forestry Titanium, 81 Index Transport, energy consumption and, 16–17 Trees, See Forestry; Timber Trellis-climbing plants, 162–3 Trief-cement, 96 Trinidad asphalt, 144 Tropical timber, 159–61 Tunnel kilns, 134 Turbulence membranes, 254 Turf, 161–2 roofs, 328–37 Turpentine, 406 Under-developed countries, 15 Underground buildings, 272–4 Unused resources, 5, 6–7 Usable resources, Used resources, Vapour barriers, 250 Vapour permeability, 60 Varnish, 401–3 Vermiculite, 91, 266–7 Vinyl floor coverings, 363 Vitrifying kilns, 136 Wallpapers, 366–73 history, 367–8 types of, 368–73 Walls: breathing, 255 cavity walls, 253 dry-stone walling, 202 peat, 237 timber, 231–4 See also Cladding Warmth-reflecting materials, 247–8 Waste products, 6–7, 26–7, 74 453 boarding production, 361 management of, 34–5 metals, 72 oil-based products, 143–4 plastics, 154, 221–2 recycling, Water, 54, 65–6 as resource, energised, 66 See also Moisture-regulating materials Waterglass, 212, 393–4 as pH-regulating surface coat, 435 paints, 414–15 Wattling, 234, 348–9 Wax, 180, 402, 426 Wedging, stone, 113 Wet-formed walls, 218–19 Windbreaks, 254 Windows, 375–80 aluminium, 382 plastic, 382 sustainable window, 379 timber, 377–80 Wood, See Timber Wood fibre boards, 285 Wood shavings, 280–2 Wood tar, 157, 176–7, 422, 438–9 Wood vinegar, 176, 439 Woodwool cement, 282–5 Wool, 180, 297–305 building paper, 298–9 Work satisfaction, 46–8 Zinc, 73, 74, 79 as climatic material, 259 Zincing, 76–7 Zytan blocks, 270 ... higher use of energy through the increased ventilation required in the building 28 The Ecology of Building Materials Table 2.2: Natural occurrence of elements in the accessible part of the Earth’s... production of ceramic tiles Reduction of the use of resources in the building process and during building use In these two phases there are the following possibilities for reducing the use of resources:... integral within the different materials 18 The Ecology of Building Materials Reduction of energy consumption in the building industry It is quite possible to reduce drastically the amount of energy