Jerzy Ma´ kowiak c Fluid Dynamics of Packed Columns Jerzy Ma´ kowiak c Fluid Dynamics of Packed Columns Principles of the Fluid Dynamic Design of Columns for Gas/Liquid and Liquid/Liquid Systems Translated by Claudia Hall with the cooperation of Anna Ługowska-Czok 123 Dr.-Ing Jerzy Ma´ kowiak c ENVIMAC Engineering GmbH Im Erlengrund 27 46149 Oberhausen Germany j.mackowiak@envimac.de ISBN 978-3-540-88780-5 e-ISBN 978-3-540-88781-2 DOI 10.1007/b98397 Springer Heidelberg Dordrecht London New York Library of Congress Control Number: 2009926972 © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2010 This work is subject to copyright All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilm or in any other way, and storage in data banks Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the German Copyright Law of September 9, 1965, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer Violations are liable to prosecution under the German Copyright Law The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use Cover design: WMXDesign GmbH, Heidelberg Printed on acid-free paper Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com) Foreword by Prof Górak, Technical University of Dortmund Columns for distillation, absorption and extraction have been applied for years in chemical, petrochemical, food, energy and electronic industry They are often equipped with different kinds of packings Understanding of principles for packing design, internal traffic of phases within the column and implementing of theoretical models into industrial practice is of vital interest of both – students and practitioners The book of Dr J Ma´ kowiak gives a deep insight into the fluid dynamics of packed columns It is c based on personal experience of the author and on a tremendous experimental data base on pressure drop (10,000 points), flooding points (1,2000 points) and liquid hold-up (1,100 points) measured for about 200 different types of random and structured packings This is the biggest experimental data base published ever The big value of this book is also the theoretical model, called “Suspended Bed of Droplets” which is bases on the dependency between the flow resistance coefficient and packing shape This model is predictive, i.e it allows calculation of pressure drop and flooding gas velocity for unknown packing geometry The model is valid for pressures from vacuum up to 100 bar and for specific liquid loads up to 250 m3 m–2 h−1 In this book the reader will find the sound theoretical analysis of two phase flow in packed column, extensive correlation of existing data for traditional and modern packings as well as practical equations which can be directly used in academic teaching courses and industrial applications Dr J Ma´ kowiak has committed to paper his 20 years experience as practitioner while c operating company ENVIMAC GmbH and as researcher, publishing his results in journals and conference papers Calculation methods of packed columns, presented in the book will increase the design accuracy of distillation, absorption and extraction which cause up to 60% of total processing costs in chemical industry Dortmund, February 2009 Prof Dr.-Ing A Górak Technical University of Dortmund Department of Biochemical and Chemical Engineering Laboratory of Fluid Separations Foreword by Prof Dr Ing A Mersmann, Technical University of Munich For many years now, packed columns have been used in various domains, such as diffusional separation technology, environmental technology and biotechnology, providing a mass transfer contact area for gases and liquids In recent decades, scientific as well as economic factors have continually led to new and more efficient packings being designed The industry is striving to accurately dimension modern packings made with new materials and innovative geometric designs and to operate them in a reliable manner This requires first of all the compilation and general presentation of experimental data, a difficult and time-consuming task, which the author has been undertaking for many years This work is based on more than 10,000 experimental pressure drop data, in excess of 1,100 liquid hold-up data and more than 1,200 flooding point data for approx 160 different random and structured packings made of various materials commonly used in practice The majority of this data was compiled by the author in an accurate and reproducible manner whilst working for the Institute of Thermal Separation Processes at Bochum University This book exceeds all publications worldwide in terms of its volume of data, and the industry will be grateful to the author as well as Springer Publishing for its publication It is my hope and wish that, for the benefit of mankind, the comprehensive and accurate results and conclusions of this work will lead to an improvement in the design and operation of packed columns Alfons Mersmann Preface The first German edition of the book “Fluid dynamics of packed columns with modern random and structured packings for gas/liquid systems” was published in 1991 It sold out within a few years Added to this were numerous enquiries, in particular within the industry, prompting me to publish a second, extended edition A packed column remains the core element of any diffusional separation process This underlines the need for basic design principles for packed columns, which enhance the design process by making it more accurate and reliable The SBD (suspended bed of droplets) model introduced in the first German edition of the book was well received by the experts and is now used by a large number of companies in the industry, as it offers improved reliability in the fluid dynamic design of packed columns For the purpose of facilitating the design process, the SBD model was integrated into the simulation programme ChemCAD The software programme FDPAK, which is available for Windows, has certainly contributed to the widespread use of the SBD model The programme is very user-friendly and the calculation results are presented in tabular as well as graphic form, showing flood load, pressure drop and hold-up diagrams in the entire operating range The first German edition concentrates on the description of the fluid dynamics of columns with random and structured packings in the vacuum and normal pressure range of up to approx bar and for specific liquid loads of up to 100 m3 m−2 h−1 for gasliquid systems This range covers a majority of the applications and tasks relevant in the absorption and desorption of highly and/or moderately soluble gases as well as in rectification under vacuum and normal pressure The importance of absorption and rectification under high pressure has steadily increased in the past 10 years, calling for an upgrading of the existing model Fortunately, new publications emerged during the last 15 years, presenting experimental data on pressure drop, flooding point and hold-up parameters for high-pressure systems Based on this, it was possible to and expand the validity of the correlation derived in the first German edition for determining the hold-up at flooding point to include the range of high liquid loads and therefore higher hold-up parameters (Chap 2) Using the SBD model, it is now possible to describe operations under higher pressure, which is very significant in practice, as it is linked to high liquid loads and low gas velocities The SBD model has been verified using experimental data taken at high pressure of x Preface up to 100 bar There are some practical numerical examples at the end of each chapter, which provide an insight into the application of the model The current edition will introduce a generally valid procedure of the single pressure drop calculating based on the knowledge of the form factor (P and an additional model for calculating the pressure drop of irrigated structured and random packings, based on the knowledge of the law of resistance ψLV = f(ReL ) for two-phase counter-current flows and of the liquid hold-up hL in the entire operating range up to flooding point This model is suitable for applications, in which the only available data for determining the law of resistance is experimental pressure drop data for a two-phase system (no given pressure drop data for dry random packings), or in which the pressure drop above the loading line for low viscous mixtures needs to be determined more accurately A large amount of experimental data has shown that this model generates satisfactory results up to flooding point for laminar ReL < as well as for turbulent liquid flow ReL > The correlation for determining the gas velocity at flooding point introduced in the first edition has been modified further and can now also be applied to any type of structured packing, tube columns with regularly stacked Pall rings, Hiflow rings and Białecki rings and regularly stacked layers of Pall rings, Raschig rings, Hiflow rings and Białecki rings Following the latest findings, it has been possible to mathematically compute various loading capacities of structured column internals of types X and Y with flow channels at different gradients This has also been taken into account in the expanded general correlation for calculating the gas velocity at flooding point, which makes this correlation applicable to any type of column internal Chapter introduces for the first time the basic fluid dynamics principles of packed columns for liquid/liquid extraction The previously mentioned SBD model for gas/liquid systems is transferable to liquid/liquid systems The method used to calculate the gas velocity at flooding point of the disperse and continuous phases will be explained by means of some numerical examples The guiding idea behind this book was to develop a closed, consistent concept for designing packed columns for gas/liquid and liquid/liquid systems, in order to make the calculation of individual parameters more transparent and create a basis for objective comparisons between different column internals In contrast to other studies, this book uses a different approach for logging processes within packed columns, which is based on the specific flow behaviour of droplet systems The occurrence of droplet systems in packed columns was confirmed by Bornhütter and Mersmann in 1991 Hence, despite the highly complicated processes of two-phase flows in packed columns, it was possible to form straight-forward, user-friendly correlations, which are ideal for practical applications when it comes to developing solutions for a wide range of tasks The simple correlations are particularly advantageous when comparing a large number of different columns internals In addition, this book should help scientists as well as students to gain a better understanding of flow processes in gas/liquid and liquid/liquid systems As opposed to other studies, this book draws on the publications of other authors to support and expand the application ranges of the SBD model However, it does not use 7.4 Conclusions 341 Hence, the deviation from the experimentally derived value is: δ uD,Fl = 11.42 − 11.6 11.42 · 100 % = −1.6 % The dispersed phase hold-up xFl at the flooding point is determined iteratively, using Eqs (7-10) and (7-12) for m= 1.9 Trial and error led to the value x = 0.40 m3 m−3 The following applies, based on Eq (7-9): uR,Fl = = uD,Fl uC,Fl uD,Fl uC,Fl = + + 0) ε·x ε · (1 − x x ε−x 11.6 · 10−3 3.37 · 10−3 + 0.4 0.841 − 0.4 = 3.66 · 10−2 ms−1 and, based on Eq (7-12): uR = wS · (1 − x)m−1 = 0.0657 · − 0.4 0.537 0.9 = 3.64 · 10−2 ms−1 Hence, the numerical value uR , acc to Eq (7-9), matches the uR value, acc to Eq (7-12) The experimental value xFl , based on Fig 7-4d, is given as xFl,exp = 0.41 m3 m−3 The relative deviation is now as follows: δ (xFl ) = 0.41 − 0.40 0.41 · 100 % = +2.43 % Numerical Example 7.2 Assuming a specific liquid flow rate of the dispersed phase of uD = 6×10−3 m3 m−2 s−1 , the aim is to determine the dispersed phase hold-up, based on the data presented in the numerical example 7.1 Solution The relative column load for the flow rate uD is given as: uD · 10−3 = = 51.7 · 10−2 = 51.7 % uD,Fl 11.6 · 10−3 342 CHAPTER Basic Principles of Packed Column Design The extractor is therefore operated below the loading line Here, correlation (7-4) can be applied, with C0 = 0.47, acc to Table 7-3: 998.22 · 0.47 · 0.831 · 9.81 · (998.2 − 866.7) · 0.0351 and C1 = 22.05 sm−1 = 13.2 · 10−2 m3 m−3 1/4 x= · 0.006 The experimentally derived value, based on Fig 7-4d, is as follows: xexp = 13.0 · 10−2 m3 m−3 The relative deviation is therefore: δ (x) = 13.0 − 13.2 13.0 · 100 % = −1.54 % Numerical Example 7.3 The aim is to extract acetic acid from toluol by means of pure water in an extraction column with a diameter of 0.154 m The column containing Montz packing, type B1-300Y, is operated at a specific liquid flow rate of the continuous phase of uC = 3.18×10−3 ms−1 (11.45 m3 m−2 h−1 ) What is the predicted flooding capacity of the dispersed phase uD,Fl ? Solution Physical properties: ρD = 998 kgm−3 ; ρD = 862 kgm−3 ; σ = 0.026 Nm−1 Technical data of the Montz packing, acc to Table 6-1c: a = 300 m2 m−3 ; ε = 0.972 m3 m−3 ; ψFl,m ∼ 0.888 = Determining the falling velocity of the droplet wS acc to Eq (7-19): dh = · 0.972 ε =4· = 0.01296 m a 300 and for D → C with Eq (7-8b), Eq (7-7) leads to a droplets diameter dT of: dT = 1.25 · σ = 1.25 · ρg 0.026 = 5.5 · 10−3 m 136.9 · 9.81 Annex Chapter 343 Based on Eq (7-19), the falling velocity of the droplet, with α = 45◦ , is given as: wS = 0.566 · 0.888−1/6 · 12.96 5.5 1/4 · 5.5 · 10−3 · 136 · 9.81 988 = 6.16 · 10−2 ms−1 Equation (7-21), for uC = 3.18×10−3 ms−1 and for D → C and m = 1.5, leads to: uD,Fl = 18.25 · 10−3 ms−1 The experimentally derived value, acc to [10, 11], is as follows (see Fig 7-11): uD,Fl = 18.3 · 10−3 ms−1 Hence, the relative deviation is: δ uD,Fl = 18.3 − 18.25 18.3 · 100 % = +0.27 % 190.8 137.2 253.8 131.5 dichloroethane (D)/water water (D)/toluol 595.8 CCl4 (D)/water p-xylene (D)/water 198.2 paraffin (D)/water MIBK (D)/water 148.5 866.7 998.2 998.2 995.6 998.2 998.2 985.6 998.2 131.5 iso-butanol (D)/water 998.2 131.5 toluol (D)/water ρC [kgm−3 ] ρ [kgm−3 ] Test system 35.1 28.0 33.7 10.0 44.5 32.0 2.8 35.1 35.1 σ·103 [Nm−1 ] 2.35 − − − − − − acetic acid 1.472 − − acetic acid 0.926 2.52 2.79 DD ·109 [m2 s−1 ] acetic acid acetic acid acetone Transferred component Table 7-1 Physical properties of the test systems investigated, valid for 293 K, bar [11−14] Annex Chapter Tables Chapter − 0.88 − 0.586 1.0 − 1.07 1.0 − − − 1.46 1.075 1.075 ηC ·109 [kgm−1 s−1 ] − 0.353 0.88 1.156 DC ·109 [m2 s−1 ] 1.0 0.835 − 0.582 0.969 − 4.703 0.586 0.586 ηD ·109 [kgm−1 s−1 ] 344 CHAPTER Basic Principles of Packed Column Design 25 mm Białecki rings metal, stacked 50 mm Białecki rings tube column 25 mm Białecki rings metal, stacked dichloroethane (D)/water CCl4 (D)/water paraffin (D)/water 100 100 220 100 53.2 154 53.2 25.5 MIBK (D)/water 50 mm Białecki rings tube column 25.5 p-xylene (D)/water 25 mm Białecki rings tube column 1.5 53.2 3.2 2.95 2.4 3.2 1.5 1.25 1.5 0.625 0.5 3.2 1.5 H [m] dS · 103 [m] 100 83 iso-butanol (D)/water System bar, 293 K 25 mm Białecki rings metal, stacked 50 mm Białecki rings tube column Column type 16.8 18.0 13.8 12.34 12.6 19.4 18.7 24.0 20.4 38.5 37.0 36.0 C1 [sm−1 ] 0.493 0.465 0.4344 0.4858 0.469 0.444 0.4525 0.465 0.464 0.470 0.458 0.463 C0 34.76 313.7 504 230.9 526.7 62.8 Re = u·dT ·ρC ηC Table 7-2 List of the experimentally determined constants C1 for Eq (7-2) and C0 for Eq (7-4), valid for 25 and 50 mm tube columns with stacked Białecki rings and for metal structured packing made of 25 mm stacked Białecki rings for various systems in range below the loading line uC ≤ 0.65 · uD ,Fl [2, 11–13] Annex Chapter 345 0.94 0.93 0.897 0.94 0.94 0.924 0.83 Fi-Pac by Filip metal sheet metal packing B1-300 by Montz Montz packing PVDF, C1-300 25 mm Pall rings metal, random 25 mm Białecki rings metal, random 25 mm Hiflow rings PVDF, random 35 mm Hiflow rings ceramic, random − − − 49149 48874 43888 16800 60623 43888 0.928 25 m Białecki rings metal, stacked 9000 N [m−3 ] - 0.924 0.94 (a) System: toluol (D)/water, bar, 293 K 50 mm tube column, metal (b) System: water (D)/toluol, bar, 293 K 25 mm Hiflow rings PVDF, random Montz packing PVDF, C1-300 ε [m3 m−3 ] Column type 0.897 154 154 154 220 154 154 154 154 154 154 154 53.2 dS ·103 [m] 2.4 2.25 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 1.45 H [m] 14.54 23.8 19.4 20.4 19.9 19.9 22.0 20.6 15.54 27.3 32.5 24.4 22.0 C1,exp [sm−1 ] 0.615 0.365 0.470 0.475 0.618 0.338 0.284 0.385 0.47 0.4722 0.4491 0.465 C0,exp Table 7-3 List of the experimentally determined constants C1 and C0 for Eqs (7-2) and (7-4) for structured and random packings investigated, valid for the range the below loading line uC ≤ 0.65 · uD ,Fl [11–12] 346 CHAPTER Basic Principles of Packed Column Design Annex Chapter 347 Table 7-4 List of mean velocities of single droplets in packed bed wS for packings and systems investigated, symbols for Fig 7-16 25 mm Raschig rings ceramic λ = 0.7 ψ=3 15 mm Pall rings metal λ = 0.7 ψ = 2.42 λ = 1.2 10 mm Pall rings metal λ = 1.2 ψ = 2.42 15 mm Raschig rings metal λ = 1.2 ψ = 8.5 177 0.693 350 0.93 0.15 0.1 515 0.92 215 0.942 0.15 350 0.92 0.1 a/ε [m2 m−3 ] [m3 m−3 ] dS /H [m] [m] 0.1 uD , uC = i δ(i) = (iexp −ical )/iexp ±100 % System no 1: toluol (D)/water System no 2: toluol (D)-acetone/water System no 3: toluol (D)/acetone/water C → D System no 4: ethyl hexanol (D)-acetic acid/water D → C 25 mm Pall rings metal λ = 0.7 ψ = 2.42 Packing 42.1 58 72 39.0 49.0 34 42.8 41.0 65 exp (uD +uC )Fl [m3 m−2 h−1 ] 48.5 51.5 60.9 45.4 56.7 38.5 41.6 41.0 62 cal No 1, m = 1.9 No 1, m = 1.9 M System −15.2 +11.5 No 4, m = 1.5, D→C No 4, m = 1.5, D→C No 4, m = 1.5, D→C −16.4 −15.7 −13.2 +15.4 No 1, m = 1.9, D→C No 2, C → D No 3, m = 1.9 +2.8 +4.6 δ i (uD +uC )Fl [%] Table 7-5 Comparison of calculated values acc to Eqs (7-21) and (7-19) of this work with experimentally determined values by Bender, Berger, Leuckel and Wolf [1] for maximum total load in non-pulsed packed columns 348 CHAPTER Basic Principles of Packed Column Design Annex Chapter 349 Table 7-6 Comparison of calculated values acc to Eqs (7-19) and (7-21) of this work with experimentally determined values by Pilhofer [18] for maximum total load in non-pulsed packed columns (uD +uC )Fl [m3 m−2 h−1 ] cal [%] 40.3 31.7 24.4 20.2 24.0 methylene chloride (D)/water MIBK (D)/water ethyl acetate (D)/water toluol (D)/water δi (uD +uC )Fl exp System 41.0 30.6 22.4 28.4 28.9 −1.74 +3.5 +8.2 −40.6 −20.4 uD , uC = i δ(i) = (iexp −ical )/iexp ·100 % Table 7-7 Range of various materials, designs and operating parameters, valid for the correlation for determining the specific flow rate of the dispersed phase at the flooding point, based on Eqs (7-21) and (7-19) [15] and investigated packings 0.7 0.025 0.696 110 1.25 866 800 99.5 0.596 0.596 10−25 mm 12−25 mm 20−38 mm 20−25 mm 15 mm 15 mm 15 mm 25, 50 mm 25 mm Fi-Pac 200 B1-300, C1-300 10−25 mm 12−25 mm 20−38 mm 20−25 mm 15 mm 15 mm 15 mm 25, 50 mm 25 mm Fi-Pac 200 B1-300, C1-300 ≤ ≤ ≤ ≤ ≤ ≤ ≤ ≤ ≤ ≤ ≤ ψFl dS ε a H ρC ρD ρ σ ηC ηD dh /dT ≤ ≤ ≤ ≤ ≤ ≤ ≤ ≤ ≤ ≤ ≤ >> 8.5 [−] 0.22 m 0.972 m3 m−3 515 m2 m−3 5.0 m 1260 kgm−3 1594 kgm−3 596 kgm−3 44.5 mNm−1 1.5 mPas 9.28 mPas Pall rings made of metal and plastic metal Białecki rings Hiflow rings made of ceramic and plastic Intalox saddles metal Raschig rings Berl saddles made of ceramic Raschig rings made of ceramic tube column with Białecki rings packing with metal Białecki rings sheet-metal packing Montz packing Pall rings made of metal and plastic metal Białecki rings Hiflow rings made of ceramic and plastic Intalox saddles metal Raschig rings Berl saddles made of ceramic Raschig rings made of ceramic tube column with Białecki rings packing with metal Białecki rings sheet-metal packing Montz packing 350 CHAPTER Basic Principles of Packed Column Design References Chapter Bender E, Berger R, Leuckel W, Wolf D Untersuchungen zur Betriebscharakteristik pulsierter Füllkörperkolonnen für die Flüssig/Flüssig-Extraktion Chem.-Ing Techn 51(1979) No 3, p 192–199 Billet R, Ma´ kowiak J, Pajak M Hydraulics and Mass Transfer in Filled Tube Columns Chem.-Eng.c Process 19 (1985) p 39–47 Billet R, Landau V, Ma´ kowiak J Rückvermischung der kontinuierlichen Phase in Rohrkolonnen c Chemie Technik 13 (1984), No 10, p 88–94 Billet R, Ma´ kowiak J Relation Between Axial Mixing in the Continuous Phase and Hold-up in c Tube Columns Filled with Białecki-Rings for Liquid/Liquid-Extraction Chem Biochem Eng 2(2) (1988), p 91–97 Brandt H, Reissinger KH, Schröter J Moderne Flüssig/Flüssig-Extraktoren - Übersicht und Auswahlkriterien Chem Ing Techn 50 (1978) No 5, p 345–354 Braun Chr Untersuchungen zur Fluiddynamik begaster Gegenstromextraktion Dissertation TUBochum (1991) VDI-Verlag No 261/ Reihe Pendulum Pulsator Technical Information – ENVIMAC Engineering GmbH, 46149 Oberhausen Gayler R, Roberts NW, Pratt HRC Liquid-Liquid Extraction: Part IV A Father Study of Hold-Up in Packed Columns Trans Inst Chem Engrs 31(1953), p 57–68 Gosch A, Einfluss von Verunreinigungen auf die Wirksamkeit und die Belastbarkeit von statischen Gegenstromextraktoren Dissertation- TU- Bochum (1988) 10 Laddha GS, Degaleesan TE Transport phenomena in liquid extraction Tata Mc Graw-Hill Publishing C Ltd New Dehli (1976) 11 Ma´ kowiak J Grundlagen der Auslegung von Kolonnen mit regellosen Füllkörpern und Packungen c Presentation at GVC-VDI annual meeting in Munich, 19/21 September 1984 12 Ma´ kowiak J, Billet R New Method of Packed Column Design for Liquid/Liquid Extraction Proc cesses with Random and Stacked Packings Ger Chem Eng 1(1986) p 48–64 13 Ma´ kowiak J, Billet R Podstawy projektowania kolumn wypełnionych procesów ekstrakcji cieczc ˙ ciecz (orig Polish) Inz Chem i Procesowa (1986), p 351–371 14 Ma´ kowiak J, Billet R Beitrag zur Auslegung von Flüssig/ Flüssig- Extraktoren mit regellos geschütc teten Füllkưrpern für Systeme grer Grenzflächenspannung Chem.Techn 40 (1988) No 8, p 339–344 15 Ma´ kowiak J Grenzbelastung von unpulsierten Füllkörperkolonnen bei der Flüssig/Flüssig- Extrakc tion Chem.-Ing.-Tech 65 (1993) No 4, p 423/429 16 Mersmann A Thermische Verfahrenstechnik Springer-Verlag (1980) 17 Mersmann A Zum Flutpunkt in Flüssig/Flüssig-Gegenstromkolonnen Chem.-Ing Techn 52 (1980) No 12, p 933–942 18 Pilhofer Th Belastungsgrenzen von pulsierten Füllkörper-Extraktionskolonnen Chem.-Ing Techn 62 (1990) No 8, p 661–663 19 Seibert AF, Fair JR Hydrodynamics and Mass Transfer in Spray and Packed Columns Ind.- Eng Chem Res 27 (1988), p 470/481 20 Thornton J D Spray liquid-liquid extraction columns: Prediction of limiting hold-up and flooding rates Chem Eng Sci (1956) p 201/208 21 Ziołkowski Z Ekstrakcja cieczy w przemy´ le chemicznym (orig Polish) WNT, Warszawa (1980) s Index A Absorption, 11–12, 14–20, 25, 41, 63, 175, 183, 189, 211, 221, 249, 278, 283 high-pressure, 21, 275, 282 Antoine equation, 15 Ambient conditions, 85, 87, 95, 190, 206, 231 Archimedes number, 54, 60 B Berl saddles, 18–20, 41, 87, 126, 317 ceramic, 18, 187, 337 Bialecki ring, 26–27, 42, 57, 64, 73, 84, 99, 141, 143, 195, 206, 288, 318, 320 hydraulic characteristics, 27–28 metal, 26–28, 47, 58, 64, 72–73, 87, 133, 143, 182, 191, 195, 206, 324–325, 335 stacked, 284, 335 Blower capacity, 175 Bodenstein numbers, 312 BX gauze packings, 75 C Capacity diagram, 19, 35, 41, 92, 176, 182, 327, 328 Cascade mini rings (CMR), 144 Ceramic lessing rings, 35 Ceramic packings, 14, 20, 84 technical data of, 158 Channel model, 140, 179–180 Chao’s formula, 33 Chlorobenzene, 212 CMR rings, 146, 261 Column diameter, 93 Columns bubble, 57 designing, 136 distillation, 20, 41, 283 gauze tube, 220 irrigated, 19 spray, 315 test, 137, 147, 253 tray, 11, 15 Contraction effect, 48, 56 D Demethaniser, 95, 106 Derivation process, 59 Differential pressure technique, 337 Dispersed phase hold-up, 317, 338 Distillation column, 20, 41, 84, 93, 175, 283 Downcomers, 221 Dripping process, 53, 89 Droplet diameter, 324 Droplet entrainment, 33 Droplet formation mechanism, 30 Droplet swarm, 33, 45, 48, 56 Droplet velocity, 48, 52, 54, 67, 84, 88, 331, 333, 336 influence of packing size on, 67–69 Dry packing, efficiency factor of, 181 DTNPAC, 14, 73, 296 Dynamic liquid load below the loading line, 185 E Eckert’s correlation, 38, 41 Energy-efficient pulsators, 315 ENVIMAC test plant, 278 Envipac, 14, 34, 60, 73, 143, 250, 288 Ethyl benzene/styrene, 91, 95, 101 Experimental flooding point data, 77, 84 Experimental pressure drop data, 126, 147, 209, 212, 214, 224, 247 value, 266, 284 Extended channel model, 145 Extraction columns, 315, 317, 327 352 Index F FDPAK programme for fluid dynamic design, 289–295 Film flow model, 18 Film gas thrust shear force model, 34, 41, 91 Film model, 18, 34, 41–43, 87, 89 Flooding capacity diagram, 20 Flooding curves, 87 Flooding line, 43–46, 91–92 Flooding point, 29–93 curve, 87, 344 determination of, 281, 327 diagram, 20, 42, 87, 91, 330, 333, 336, 338 droplet formation in packed columns, 31–34 flooding mechanisms, 29–31 suspended bed of droplets model (SBD), 44–88 droplet size and range of droplet movement, 52 falling velocity of a single droplet, 48 Flood load diagram, 38–40, 110, 330, 334 factor, 28, 35, 48, 99 Flow channel angle, 75, 137 Flow parameter, 35, 48 Fluid dynamic design of packed columns, 127, 287–288, 295 Fluidisation process, 48, 57 Fluidised bed model, 56 Form-specific packing factor, 143 Friction forces, 141 Froude number, 85, 89, 194 G Gas capacity factor, 26–29, 93, 133, 136, 141, 191, 194, 202, 211, 231, 283–285, 292 Gas velocity, 44, 69, 75 determination of, 77, 85, 103, 217, 221, 253 dimensionless correlation for, 85 final equation for, 69–75 Gempak 202 AT packing, 75 Gempak 2AT304, 193 Geometric packing, 90, 124–125, 146, 148, 199, 205–206, 248, 264, 285 Glitsch CMR, 146 Glitsch rings, 72, 144, 288 Groundwater treatment, 11, 275 H Hackette, 143, 250 Hiflow packing elements, 16 Hiflow ring, 14, 21, 34, 42, 60, 64, 73, 75, 84, 87, 144–145, 191, 250, 288, 318, 335, 340 metal, 288 High-pressure absorption, 275 Hydraulic characteristics, 327 Hydraulic model of packed bed, 141, 124 I IMPT rings, 265 Individual droplet velocity, new equation, 88 Instationary diffusion theory, 20 Intalox saddle, 18–19, 21, 72, 84, 126, 145, 176, 191, 250, 288 ceramic, 84, 195, 288 Interfacial tension, 318, 324–325, 337 I-13 rings, 72, 143 Irrigated classic packings, 176 Irrigated random packings, graphical methods, 177 Irrigated structured packings, 253 K Kinematic viscosity, 52 L Laminar liquid flow, 63, 64, 90, 199, 204–205, 208–209, 227 experimental values for, 209 Lattice packings, 15, 29–30, 60, 127 Lattice work packings, 25 Law of resistance, 26, 127, 136, 141, 247, 275, 283 for single-phase flow, 123–140, 247–248 resistance coefficient for pall rings, 127 resistance coefficient for random packings, 131 resistance coefficient for structured packings, 133 Liquid dripping, 30 Liquid-fluidised beds, 30 Liquid hold-up, 56–57, 183, 185, 188, 191, 202, 206, 282–286 at flooding point, 282 below the loading line, 191, 284 models for determining the, 188 Liquid-liquid-extraction test plant, 315 Liquid load, 20, 29, 34, 53, 57–58, 190, 202, 211, 231, 237, 284–285 dimensionless, 91–92 Index 353 high, 33, 42, 92 moderate, 25, 211 Loading line, 17–20, 27–28, 93–95, 176, 181–183, 189–190, 202–204, 206–208, 211, 214, 217, 221, 224, 226, 258, 250, 283–284, 285, 317, 321, 323, 325, 333, 338 Lower loading line, 17, 19, 93–94 Lurgi plants, 16 M Mass transfer coefficient, 19, 20, 317 Mc-Pac, 14, 73, 143–145, 150–151, 250, 288 Mellapak 250 Y packing, 14, 73, 75, 137, 139, 220, 231 Mellapak pressure column, 109 Mellapak sulzer packings, 288 Montz packing, 14, 73, 76, 133, 193, 199, 288, 335, 342 N Non-perforated packings, 31, 143, 147 Nor-Pak packing elements, 21 NSW (Nor-Pac) rings, 64, 182, 288 Nutter rings, 257 P Packed columns, 11–12, 14–15, 17–18, 20–21, 25, 29, 34, 44, 47, 52, 54, 59, 67, 76–77, 85, 87–89, 94, 123, 125, 146, 175, 186, 189, 205, 211, 221, 247, 248–249, 253, 275, 282–283, 290, 315, 317, 322, 323, 336, 338, 340 basic design of, 315 behaviour of, 20, 322 design, 17 development of, 14–15 hydraulic processes in, 25–29 principles of, 315 Packing-specific constant, 183, 207, 224, 253 geometric data, 126, 227 Pall ring, 14, 18–21, 34, 38, 41–42, 60, 64, 72, 75, 87, 91, 95, 127, 133, 142, 143–145, 176, 182, 191, 218, 264, 288, 292–297, 317, 335, 337–338 ceramic, 21, 288 plastic, 95, 103, 264, 288 metal, 18, 35, 39, 64, 84, 94, 97, 142, 148, 182, 209, 250, 288, 318, 320, 335 Perforation, 137 Phase flow ratio, 29–31, 59–64, 89, 91, 98, 202, 212, 281–282, 286 Phase inversion, 29 Photo-electric method, 324 Plastic packings, 29, 41, 75, 84 technical data of, 156–157 Pressure absorption, 15, 21, 42, 61, 89, 92, 275, 282 Pressure drop, 18–21, 127, 282–284 advantage of determination of, 285–286 at flooding point, 286 calculating the, 147, 149, 212, 225, 249, 253, 264, 283, 287 curve, 27–29, 31, 283 data, 128, 258, 253 determination of, 237, 253 dimensionless, 176, 208, 232 dry packing, 125, 127, 150, 231, 275 irrigated packed column, 239–243, 267–270 irrigated pall rings, 266 irrigated random packings calculation of the, 249 empirical methods for, 178 model for determining, 207–243, 247 irrigated packing, 18, 25–26, 123, 176, 180, 209, 221, 253, 264, 275 packed columns, 21, 175 single-phase flow, 20, 143 specific, 17, 19, 175 Pressure rectification, 15, 33, 42, 92, 211, 275, 282 PSL rings, 72, 144 PVDF, 206, 335, 338 R Ralu-Pak 250YC packing, 75 Ralu rings, 73, 144, 146, 250 plastic, 260 Ralu-Super rings, 288 Random packings, 11–12, 14, 16–17, 20, 26–27, 35, 60, 87, 89–90, 123, 131, 145, 190, 206, 214–215, 220, 223–224, 227, 247, 282, 284–286, 287–288, 317, 321, 333, 338 ceramic, 82, 82 envipac, 16 metal, 78–79 technical data, 153–155 plastic, 80–81 354 Index Raschig rings, 14, 17–21, 38, 41–42, 72, 75, 84, 87, 176, 186, 250, 288, 337 ceramic, 17–18, 20, 72, 94, 126, 181–182, 186–187, 195, 248 metal, 20, 187, 288 properties of, 14 super rings, 14, 288 Rectification, 14, 20, 89, 18, 183, 211, 275, 280 test plant, 280 Reflux ratio, 15, 96, 175 Relative errors, list of, 232–236 Resistance coefficient, 17, 34, 52–53, 70, 73, 75, 77, 84–85, 87, 89, 97, 99, 102, 123–131, 133, 136–137, 139–141, 143–150, 209, 211, 227, 237, 248–249, 264, 275, 281, 284, 287–288, 338 for non-perforated packing elements, 142 for Bialecki rings, 133 Reynolds number, 32, 52–53, 60, 93, 100, 124, 130, 133, 139, 143, 146–147, 150, 189, 199, 205, 209, 248, 264, 282, 284 Rising and falling velocity equation for, 331 of droplets in packings, 331 R-Pac, 14, 73, 143–145, 288 RVT (Rauschert) packings, 256, 288 S Saddle packings, 288 Sauter droplet diameter, 317, 325 Schematic representation of packing, 11 Sedimentation process, 48, 57 Separation efficiency, 14, 17–18, 20, 94, 137, 317 Separation technology, 11 Shear factor, 31–32 Shearing forces, 28 Shearing off droplets, 31 Shear stress number, 94 Sherwood correlation, 19 Simplex method, 56–57, 61 Single droplets in packed bed, mean velocities, 347 Slip velocity, 57 Slit perforation, 73, 75, 133 Small ceramic rings, 325 Snowflake, 34 Specific flow rate, model for determining, 335 Spirals, 35 Stacked packing, 13, 77, 84, 88–89, 125, 127, 145, 176, 183, 191, 193–194, 199, 205, 225, 249, 281, 284–285, 287, 315, 335 technical data of, 159–160, 304–308 Static liquid hold-up, 184 Straight tubes and structuredchannels, new models of, 188 Structured packings, 11, 13–17, 20–21, 26–27, 29, 35, 44, 60, 74–77, 84, 87–89, 123, 127, 133, 137, 145, 147, 150, 176, 183, 186, 189–195, 198–199, 204–206, 214–215, 220–221, 224–225, 227, 247, 249–250, 252, 275, 281–282, 284–285, 287–288, 315, 317–324, 333, 338 technical data of, 159–160, 312–316 Styrene, 91, 95, 101, 212 Sulzer gauze packing, 76, 95, 101 Superficial velocity, 45, 54 dimensionless, 54 Suspended bed of droplets model (SBD model), 20, 45, 47, 56, 77, 85, 88–89, 91, 109, 123, 275, 281, 332, 338 U Tellerette, 73 Test plant for investigation, 279 Theoretical separation efficiency, 17, 175 Thermal process engineering, 12 Toluene, 94, 212 Top-Pak, 14, 250, 288 Trickle film, 12, 41–42, 185–186, 188 Tube columns, 13, 29, 75, 77, 89–90, 127, 183, 225, 249, 275, 281, 315, 317–318 Two-phase flow, 317 V Vacuum distillation columns, 93 Vacuum rectification, 15, 61, 63, 77, 175 Validity range, 288–289 VFF pall rings, 288 Void fraction, 26, 29, 33, 42, 77, 87–88, 124, 128, 148, 190, 204, 247–248, 264, 283, 336 Volumetric mass transfer coefficient, 20–21 Vortex shedding, 69 VSP ring, 14, 34, 42, 60, 69, 73, 144, 250, 288, 335 metal, 72, 335 Index 355 W Wall effect, 67, 73 Water test system, 18, 20, 95 Waste-air and wastewater treatment, 275 Weber number, 32–33 X X packings, 77 ... Ma´ kowiak c Fluid Dynamics of Packed Columns Jerzy Ma´ kowiak c Fluid Dynamics of Packed Columns Principles of the Fluid Dynamic Design of Columns for Gas/Liquid and Liquid/Liquid Systems Translated... behaviour of packed columns for the development of a new method for the standard presentation of the fluid dynamics of columns with any type of packing design The basic principles of the method for. .. 295 Part Principles of the Fluid Dynamic Design of Packed Columns for Liquid/Liquid Systems Basic Principles of Packed Column Design for Liquid/Liquid Systems 7.1 Introduction