CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN This page intentionally left blank CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN Principles, Practice and Economics of Plant and Process Design GAVIN TOWLER RAY SINNOTT AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON NEW YORK • OXFORD • PARIS • SAN DIEGO SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier 30 Corporate Drive, Suite 400, Burlington, MA 01803, USA 525 B Street, Suite 1900, San Diego, California 92101-4495, USA 84 Theobald’s Road, London WCIX 8RR, UK This book is printed on acid-free paper Copyright © 2008, Elsevier Inc All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier’s Science & Technology Rights Department in Oxford, UK: phone: (+44) 1865 843830, fax: (+44) 1865 853333, E-mail: permissions@elsevier.com You may also complete your request on-line via the Elsevier homepage (http://elsevier.com), by selecting ‘‘Support & Contact’’ then ‘‘Copyright and Permission’’ and then ‘‘Obtaining Permissions.’’ No responsibility is assumed by the publisher or the authors for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, of from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, data or ideas contained in the material herein Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Application Submitted British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 13: 978-0-7506-8423-1 For information on all Butterworth-Heinemann publications visit our Web site at www.books.elsevier.com Printed in the United States of America 07 08 09 10 Cover Design: Joe Tenerelli Gavin Towler is the Senior Manager of Process Design, Modeling and Equipment at UOP LLC He manages the areas of process design and optimization, equipment design, and physical and kinetic modeling for UOP Research and Development As adjunct professor at Northwestern University, he teaches the chemical engineering senior design classes He is a Chartered Engineer and Fellow of the Institute of Chemical Engineers Ray Sinnott began his career in design and development with several major companies, including DuPont and John Brown He later joined the Chemical Engineering Department at the University of Wales, Swansea, UK, publishing the first edition of Chemical Engineering Design in 1983 He is a Chartered Engineer, Eur Ing and Fellow of the Institute of Chemical Engineers This page intentionally left blank CONTENTS PREFACE xv HOW TO USE THIS BOOK ACKNOWLEDGMENTS INTRODUCTION TO DESIGN 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.10 1.11 1.12 xvii xix Introduction Nature of Design The Anatomy of a Chemical Manufacturing Process The Organization of a Chemical Engineering Project 11 Project Documentation 13 Codes and Standards 16 Design Factors (Design Margins) 17 Systems of Units 18 Optimization 19 References 44 Nomenclature 44 Problems 45 FUNDAMENTALS OF MATERIAL BALANCES 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 49 Introduction 50 The Equivalence of Mass and Energy 50 Conservation of Mass 51 Units Used to Express Compositions 51 Stoichiometry 52 Choice of System Boundary 53 Choice of Basis for Calculations 56 Number of Independent Components 57 Constraints on Flows and Compositions 58 General Algebraic Method 59 vii viii CONTENTS 2.11 2.12 2.13 2.14 2.15 2.16 2.17 2.18 2.19 2.20 2.21 74 FUNDAMENTALS OF ENERGY BALANCES AND ENERGY UTILIZATION 81 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 3.16 3.17 3.18 3.19 3.20 Tie Components 60 Excess Reagent 62 Conversion, Selectivity, and Yield 63 Recycle Processes 68 Purge 70 Bypass 71 Unsteady-State Calculations 72 General Procedure for Material-Balance Problems References 75 Nomenclature 75 Problems 76 Introduction 82 Conservation of Energy 82 Forms of Energy (Per Unit Mass of Material) 83 The Energy Balance 84 Calculation of Specific Enthalpy 89 Mean Heat Capacities 90 The Effect of Pressure on Heat Capacity 92 Enthalpy of Mixtures 94 Enthalpy-Concentration Diagrams 95 Heats of Reaction 98 Standard Heats of Formation 101 Heats of Combustion 102 Compression and Expansion of Gases 104 Energy Balance Calculations 112 Unsteady State Energy Balances 113 Energy Recovery 114 Heat Exchanger Networks 124 References 145 Nomenclature 146 Problems 150 FLOWSHEETING 153 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 Introduction 154 Flowsheet Presentation 155 Process Simulation Programs 162 Specification of Components and Physical Property Models 165 ix CONTENTS 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 PIPING AND INSTRUMENTATION 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 Simulation of Unit Operations 169 User Models 204 Flowsheets with Recycle 207 Flowsheet Optimization 219 Dynamic Simulation 224 References 224 Nomenclature 225 Problems 226 235 Introduction 236 The P and I Diagram 236 Valve Selection 241 Pumps and Compressors 243 Mechanical Design of Piping Systems 262 Pipe Size Selection 265 Control and Instrumentation 275 Typical Control Systems 277 Alarms, Safety Trips, and Interlocks 285 Computers in Process Control 287 References 289 Nomenclature 291 Problems 293 COSTING AND PROJECT EVALUATION 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 6.10 6.11 6.12 Introduction 298 Costs, Revenues, and Profits 298 Estimating Capital Costs 306 Estimating Production Costs and Revenues Taxes and Depreciation 352 Project Financing 358 Economic Evaluation of Projects 363 Sensitivity Analysis 380 Project Portfolio Selection 384 References 388 Nomenclature 390 Problems 392 297 334 1231 INDEX symbols 155, 1089 utilities (services) 161 Flow-sheeting 154–224 see also Process simulation Fluconazole (design exercise) 1158 Fluid streams, allocation of, in heat exchangers 820 Fluidized-bed dryers 573, 574 Fluidized-bed reactors 629 Fluoxetine hydrochloride (design exercise) 1159 Fluticasone propionate (Flovente) (design exercise) 1159 FMEA (Failure mode effect analysis) 503 Fog formation in condensers 884 Folic acid (design exercise) 1151 Food and Drug Administration (FDA) 386 Forced-circulation evaporators 578, 579 Forced-circulation reboilers 890 design of 902–3 Forced-convective boiling coefficient, estimation of 897 Forecasting prices 338 Forster–Zuber correlation 894 Fouling, shell-side pressure drop affected by 866 Fouling factors (coefficients) 798, 800, 920 Francis weir formula 724 Frank and Prickett method for thermosiphon reboilers 904 Friction factors cross-flow tube banks 861 heat exchanger tubes 828 pipes 246, 247 shell-side 834 Froth flotation processes 549 Froth height, in downcomer 731 Fuel, costs 342 Fuel processor (design exercise) 1149 Fugacity coefficient 461 Fuller equation 453 Full-faced flanges 1025 Furnaces costs 320 see also Fired heaters Future worth 365 Galvanic corrosion 404 Galvanic series 404 Gas-cleaning equipment 591 selection of 592 Gas–liquid separators 603–9 horizontal 606 settling velocity in 604 vertical 605 Gas oil, physical properties 841 Gas–solids separation 591 Gas–solids separators 591–603 cyclones 593 electrostatic precipitators 603, 604 filters 601 gravity settlers 593 impingement separators 593 selection of 592 wet scrubbers 602 Gas solubilities 470 Gas to liquids by Fischer-Tropsch synthesis (design exercise) 1154 Gaseous wastes energy recovery from 118 treatment of 1082 Gases densities 435 diffusion coefficients 452 mixing of 610 pressure drop calculations 248 specific heat capacity 446 storage of 623 thermal conductivities 441 transport of 620–3 viscosities 440 Gasketed plate heat exchangers 918–27, 919 Gaskets 920, 1023–5, 1024 Gate valves 241, 242 Geddes–Hengstebeck equation 677 Glass as construction material 419 corrosion resistance 1113–7 Glass fibre reinforced plastics (GRP) 418 see also Thermosetting materials Glass linings 420 Globe valves 241, 242 Gold, as construction material 416 Government grants 353 Granulocyte colony stimulating factor (design exercise) 1159 Graphite, corrosion resistance 1113–7 Gravity settlers (gas–solids separators) 593 Grayson–Stread (G–S) equation 463 Grid representation, heat exchanger networks 133 Grinding 609 selection of equipment 611–2 Grizzly screens 543 Gross margin 304 use in forecasting prices 339, 339 Gross profit 305 Group contribution techniques, physical properties predicted using 437, 444, 447, 454, 456, 459, 466 Growth projects 385 Guaifenesin (Actifede, Robitussine) (design exercise) 1159 Guest’s theory 967 Half-pipe jackets 939 Hand factors 313, 314 Hardness of materials 400 and comminution equipment 611–2 typical values 399 Hastelloys 414 Hazard analysis 502 see also Safety analysis methods Hazard and operability (HAZOP) studies 517–26 basic principles 517 example 522 guide words explained 518, 518 procedure 520, 521 Hazard ranking system (EPA, under SARA) 1079 Hazard rate 528 Hazardous wastes, disposal/treatment of 1083 Hazardous zone classification (electrical) 497 Hazards 486–501 explosions 499 flammability 488, 496 high temperature 494 human error 501 ionizing radiation 491 loss of containment 496 materials incompatibility 498 noise 495 pressure 493 toxicity 487 Heads and closures for pressure vessels 987–93 choice of 987 conical ends 991 domed ends 989, 990 flat ends 988–9 1232 Heat capacity 89 combustion gases 91 effect of pressure on 92 gases 446, 1119–40 ideal gas state 89 mean 90 mixtures 443 solids and liquids 442 Heat capacity flow rate 125 Heat cascade, in process integration 131, 132 Heat exchange, energy recovery by 115 Heat exchanger networks 115, 124–45 computer methods for design 139 design above pinch temperature 134 design below pinch temperature 135 design for maximum energy recovery 133 grid representation 133 minimum number of exchangers 137 minimum temperature difference in 126, 129 stream splitting rules 136 threshold problems 139 Heat exchangers 793–938 air-cooled 932, 933 allocation of fluid streams 820 analysis by effectiveness–NTU method 796 control of 278 costs 320 data sheets for 1203–4 design procedures 832–70, 845 direct-contact 929 double-pipe 931 finned tubes in 930 fluid physical properties 822 gasketed plate 918–27 low-fin tubes in 931 mean temperature difference in 815 minimum temperature difference in 126, 129, 821 plate-fin 928 pressure drop in 822 pressure-drop limitations of design methods 866 shell-and-tube 801–70 INDEX shells in 806 simulation of 197–202 spiral 928 standards and codes for 803 tube-plates/sheets in 812, 1028–31 tubes in 805 welded plate 927 see also Shell and tube exchangers Heat, meaning of term 84 Heat pumps 123 performance coefficient 123 Heat recovery projects 384 Heat transfer basic theory 795–6 in fired heaters 935 j-factor 825 to vessels 938–45 Heat transfer coefficients agitated vessels 938–45 boiling 894 mixtures 906 coils 943 condensation of mixtures 880–4 condensing steam 878 convective boiling 897 film boiling 895 overall 796 typical values 797–8, 799 plate heat exchangers 922 shell-side 833, 836, 853, 855 tube-side 823–7 water in tubes 827 Heat transfer coils 977–83 Heat transfer fluids 118 Heaters see Fired heaters Heats of combustion 102 of waste gases 119 Heats of formation 101, 460, 1119–40 Heats of mixing (solution) 94 Heats of reaction 98, 460 calculation of 98 correction for temperature 99 effect of pressure on 99 prediction of 460 standard 98 Height of equivalent theoretical plate (HETP) 742, 747 packed columns 753 Height of equivalent theoretical stage (HETS), extraction columns 779 Height of transfer unit (HTU) 748 prediction for packed columns 752 Cornell’s method 752 nomographs 755 Onda’s method 754 typical values 747, 753 Hemispherical heads (pressure vessels) 990 Hengstebeck’s method, multicomponent distillation 668 Henry’s law 470 Heterogeneous reactions 627 Heuristic rules for distillation column sequencing 667 High-alloy stainless steels 413 High-pressure streams, energy recovery from 121 High-pressure vapor–liquid equilibria 469 High-pressure vessels 1035–7 autofrettage 1037 compound vessels 1035–7 wire wound vessels 1036 High-temperature hazards 494 High-temperature materials 401 High-temperature oxidation and sulfidation 406 High-temperature reactors, energy recovery from 116 Historical-costs approach (cost estimation) 307 Hold-down plates, in packed columns 769 Homogeneous reactions 627 Hoop stress 969, 1000 Hoppers 626 HTFS (Heat Transfer and Fluid Services) 794, 815, 853 HTRI (Heat Transfer Research Inc.) 794, 815 HTU see Height of transfer unit; Transfer units Human error 501, 501 Hydraulic conveying 625 Hydraulic gradient, on plates 728 Hydraulic jigs 547, 548 Hydraulic mean diameter, in heat exchangers 825 Hydraulic presses 568 Hydraulics, simulation of 202 Hydrocarbon Processing handbooks 429 Hydrocarbons, K-values 466 Hydrocracking (design exercise) 1153 1233 INDEX Hydrocyclones 546, 546, 565, 568–9, 590 Hydrogen (design exercises) by steam reforming of methane 1154 for fuel cells 1149 from fuel oil 1179 Hydrogen embrittlement 407 Hydroseparators 547 Hygiene, industrial 487 Hypac packing 743, 745 Hypalon 419 Hypocomponents see pseudocomponents Ibuprofen (Advile, Motrine) (design exercise) 1159 ICARUS see ASPEN ICARUS ICIS Chemical Business 335 Ideal tube bank heat transfer coefficients 854 pressure drop 860 Ignition sources 496 Immiscible solvents 777 Impellers 615 Impingement separators (gas–solid) 593 Incineration of wastes 120, 1082–3 Incoloy and Inconel 408, 414 Income statement 358–9 Incompatible materials 489 Independent components, number of 57 Indirect capital costs 299 Industrial hygiene 487 Inert gas 1076 costs 348 Inflammable see Flammability Inflation (cost) 324, 366 Information sources on manufacturing processes 428–30 on physical properties 430 Inherently safe equipment 486 see also Intrinsically safe equipment In-line mixers 319, 613 Insect repellant (design exercise) 1151 Installation factors 313–7, 315 Institution of Chemical Engineers (IChemE) on safety 482 on waste minimization 1082 Instrument designation codes 240, 240 Instrument line symbols 238 Instrumentation and control objectives 275 Instrumentation response, effect on pressure relief 1040 Instrumentation symbols 237–41 Instrumentation, Systems and Automation Society (ISA) 16 see also ISA codes and standards Instruments 275 Insulation, density 1005 Insurance costs 303 Intalox saddles 320, 743, 745 Integer programming 36 Integral condensation 881 Integral heats of solution 94 Interest cost of capital 362 due on debt 361 payments 359 in calculating time value of money 365 Intergranular corrosion 404 Interlocks (safety) 285, 287 Internal coils 941–3 Internal energy 83 Internal floating-head heat exchangers 802, 803, 804 Internal rate of return (IRR) 367 Internal reboiler 892 Internal Revenue Service (IRS) 352 International Critical Tables (ITC) 431 Internet as source of property data 430 Interval temperature, in problem table method 130 Intrinsic safety 486 Intrinsically safe equipment (electrical) 498 Investment criteria 384–8 Investment incentives 353 Ion exchange 320, 590 Ionizing radiation 491 Iron and alloys 411 properties 399 ISA (Instrumentation, Systems and Automation Society) codes and standards ISA 5.1 Instrumentation symbols and identification 237–41 ISBL capital cost 299 Isentropic efficiency 104, 106 Isentropic expansion and compression 104 Isentropic work, calculation of 104 ISO (International Organization for Standardization) 16 ISO codes and standards ISO 10628 PFD symbols 155 ISO 13706 (API 661) Air-cooled exchangers 932 ISO 14040 Life cycle assessment: principles 1086 ISO 14041 Life cycle assessment: goals and scope definition 1086 ISO 14042 Life cycle assessment: impact assessment 1086 ISO 14043 Life cycle assessment: interpretation 1086 ISO 14044 Life cycle assessment: requirements and guidelines 1086 Isomerization of naphtha (design exercise) 1154 Isometric drawings, piping 272 Isothermal expansion and compression 84 j-factor, in heat transfer 825 Jacketed vessels 939–41 heat transfer in 941 mechanical design of 995–9 Jackets heat transfer in 941 pressure drop in 941 selection of 940 Joint efficiency, welded joints 983, 984 Journal of Chemical Engineering Data 431 K-values 461 for hydrocarbons 466, 467–8 Kern’s design method for heat exchangers 832–853 overall heat transfer coefficient 836 pressure drop calculations 836 procedure 835 shell nozzle pressure drop 836 Kettle reboilers 320, 891, 892, 913–8 design of 913–8 Key components in multicomponent distillation, selection of 665–6 Kinetic energy 83 Kirkbride equation, in multicomponent distillation 676 Knovel information sources 430 Kraft pulping (design exercise) 1162 Krypton recovery (design exercise) 1154 1234 Labor availability, site selection influenced by 1067 Labor costs 302, 350 Lactic acid by fermentation (design exercise) 1148 Ladders, weights 1005 Land considerations, in site selection 1068 Land costs, rent 303 Landfill 1083 Lang factors 313 Lansoprazole (Prevacide) (design exercise) 1159 Lantern rings, in pump shaft seals 260 Lap-joint flanges 1022 Latent heat of vaporization 449, 1119–40 effect of temperature on 449 of mixtures 450 Layers of plant safety 484, 484 LD50 (lethal dose fifty) 487 Leaching 591 Lead, as construction material 415 Leaf filters 554 Leakage correction factor, heat exchangers 858 Lee–Kesler–Plocker (L–K–P) equation 463 Legislation Canadian 483, 1079–80 environmental 1077–80 safety 482–3 see also CAA, CWA, EPCRA, OSHA, PPA, RCRA, SARA, TSCA Level control 277 Leverage (debt ratio) 360 Lewis–Matheson method, in multicomponent distillation 694 Lewis–Sorel method (distillation) 653 Liabilities 358 License fees 303 Lifecycle assessment 1086 Linear algebra methods, multicomponent distillation 696 Linear alkylbenzenes (design exercise) 1148 Linear programming (optimization) 33 Liquid-cyclones 546, 565, 590 Liquid density 434 Liquid distributors, in packed columns 765, 767–8 INDEX Liquid–gas separators 603–9 Liquid hold-up, in packed columns 771 Liquid–liquid equilibria 469, 774 Liquid–liquid extraction 591, 772–9 of dissolved liquids 591 see also Solvent extraction Liquid–liquid separators 582–590 Liquid phase activity coefficient ASOG method 466 sour water 469 UNIFAC method 466 UNIQUAC equation 464 Liquid redistribution, in packed columns 768, 769–70 Liquid–solid separators 550–82 selection of 551 Liquid–vapor equilibria see Vapor–liquid equilibria Liquid–vapor separators 603–9 Liquid viscosities 436 effect of pressure 439 of mixtures 439 variation with temperature 437 Liquid wastes energy recovery from 118 treatment of 1083 Liquids density 434 diffusion coefficients 453 heat capacities 442 mixing of 610–8 storage of 624, 1028 surface tension 455 thermal conductivities 441 transport of 623–4 viscosity 436 Lisinopril (design exercise) 1159 Loads, on pressure vessels 999 Loan guarantees 353 Local community considerations, in plant location 1067 Local taxes 303 Location considerations 1066–8 Location factors for costing 326, 328 Lockhart–Martinelli two-phase flow parameter 898 Logarithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD) 815 correction factors for heat exchangers 816–20 Logic symbols 528 Longitudinal stress 969, 1000 Long-tube evaporators 578 Loratidine (design exercise) 1160 Loss control credit factors 512 Loss of containment 496 Loss prevention 481–533 check list 532 Low-fat snacks (design exercise) 1151 Low-fin tubes, in heat exchangers 931 Low-grade fuels, energy recovery from 118 MACRS depreciation 356, 357 MACT (Maximum available control technology) 1078 Magnetic separators 549, 549 Maintenance 1071 costs 303 d-Malic acid (design exercise) 1163 Mannitol (design exercise) 1152 Manual methods for acceleration of convergence, in process simulation 211 Manufacturing processes, sources of information on 428 Margarine (design exercise) 1152 Margins design safety factors 17 product margins (process economics) 304 Marketing area, site selection affected by 1066 Marketing costs 303 Marshall and Swift (M & S) equipment cost index 324, 325 Mass conservation of 51 equivalence with energy 50 Mass transfer coefficients, film (column) 754 Material balances 49–75 by-pass streams affecting 71 choice of basis for calculations 56 choice of system boundary 53 constraints on flows and compositions 58 in distillation 645 general algebraic method 59 general procedure 74 number of independent components 57 purge affecting 70 recycle streams in 68 tie components in 60 1235 INDEX units for compositions 51 unsteady-state calculations 72 see also MESH equations; Process simulation Material factors in costing 315, 316 in Dow F & E Index 508, 508 Material properties 398–401 corrosion resistance 402–8 ease of fabrication 399 effect of temperature on 401 Materials hazards 486 design for 492 flammability 488 incompatibility 489 radiation 491 toxicity 487 Materials of construction 397–422 aluminum and alloys 415 bricks and tiles 420 carbon 421 ceramics 419 copper and alloys 415 corrosion 402–8 corrosion chart 1099–1117 costs 408 ease of fabrication 399 gaskets 1024 glass 419 Hastelloys 414 Incoloy and Inconel 414, 408 iron and steel 411 lead 415 mechanical properties 399, 399, 978 Monel 414, 408 nickel 414 plastics 417–9 platinum 416 for pressure vessels 981, 982 refractories 420 selection for corrosion resistance 407 stainless steels 411–4 stoneware 420 tantalum 416 titanium 415 zirconium and alloys 416 Materials Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) 491, 1215 Mathematics of statistics 382 Matrix exchangers 927 Maximum allowable stress 981 typical values 982 Maximum allowable working pressure 980 Maximum available control technology (MACT) 1078 Maximum heat flux see Critical heat flux Maximum principal stress theory of failure 967 Maximum shear stress 968 Maximum shear stress theory of failure 967 Maximum strain energy theory of failure 968 McCabe–Thiele method, in distillation 654 Mean heat capacities 90 Mean temperature difference in condensers 878 in heat exchangers 815 in reboilers/vaporizers 914 Mechanical design 961–1038 jacketed vessels 995–9 piping systems 262–5 pressure vessels 961–1037 thin-walled vessels 986–93 Mechanical properties 398–9, 399, 982 effect of temperature on 401, 982 Mechanical seals 260, 261 Membrane filtration 577, 577 Membrane stresses in shells 968 MESH (Material balance, Equilibrium, Summation, Heat energy) equations 647, 665, 693 Metals and alloys 410–6 corrosion resistance (chart) 922–7 costs 408 fabrication properties 399 mechanical properties 399, 982 Methanol to olefins (design exercise) 1154 Methyl ethyl ketone (design exercise) 1172 Methylene chloride (design exercise) 1146 Microprocessors, in process control 287 Mild steel 411 MIMO (Multiple input-multiple output) control devices 287 Minimization of waste 1080–2 Minimum number of heat exchangers in network 137 Minimum reflux ratio 644 Underwood equation 675 Minimum shell thickness (heat exchangers) 807 Minimum temperature difference, in heat exchangers 126, 129, 821 Minimum wall thickness, pressure vessels 985 Miscellaneous pressure losses 248 Mixed integer programming 36 Mixers see Mixing equipment Mixing 609–620 of gases 610 of liquids 610 of pastes and solids 618 Mixing equipment 609–620 for gases 610 for liquids 610–8 for solids and pastes 618–20, 620 Mixtures boiling heat transfer coefficients 906 classification of 470 condensation of 880 enthalpy 94 heat capacities 443 latent heat of vaporization 450 surface tension 456 thermal conductivity 442 viscosity 439 Modified Accelerated Cost Recovery System (MACRS) depreciation 356, 357 Modular construction 1071 Moisturizing lotion (design exercise) 1152 Mollier diagrams 105 Mond Index 513 Monel 414 costs 408 properties 408 Monosodium glutamate (design exercise) 1152 Monte Carlo simulation 382 Mostinski equation 895 Motors, costs 320 MSDS (Materials Safety Data Sheets) 491, 1215 Multicomponent distillation 665–96 distribution of non-key components 677 general considerations 665–7 key components 665–6 1236 Multicomponent distillation, (continued) non-key components 666, 677 number and sequencing of columns 666 plate efficiency prediction 698 pseudo-binary systems 667–71 rigorous solution procedures 693–7 short-cut methods 667–93 Erbar–Maddox method 673 Fenske equation 674 Geddes–Hengstebeck equation 677 Hengstebeck’s method 668 Kirkbride equation 676 Smith–Brinkley method 671 Underwood equation 675 Multilayer pressure vessels 1036 Multiple pinches 139 Multiple utilities (pinch technology) 139 Multistage compressors 109 Murphree plate efficiency 698 NACE (National Association of Corrosion Engineers), corrosion data survey 407 2, 6-Naphthalene dicarboxylic acid (design exercise) 1148 Narrow-faced flanges 1025 National ambient air quality standards 1077 National emissions standards for hazardous air pollutants (NESHAP) 1078 National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) 1077 National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 16 see also NFPA codes and standards Natural gas liquefaction (design exercise) 1154 Natural gas liquids recovery (design exercise) 1154 Nelson-Farrer index 324, 325 NEPA (National Environmental Policy Act) 1077 NESHAP (National emissions standards for hazardous air pollutants) 1078 Net positive suction head (NPSH) 257 Net present value (NPV) 366 Net profit 305 INDEX Newton method 29 for flowsheet convergence 211 NFPA (National Fire Protection Association) codes and standards NFPA 30 Flammable and combustible liquids 496–7, 499 NFPA 49 Hazardous chemicals data 491 NFPA 70 National electrical code 497, 1075 NFPA 70B Recommended practice for electrical equipment maintenance 498 NFPA 77 Recommended practice on static electricity 498 NFPA 491 Guide to hazardous chemical reactions 491, 500 NFPA 495 Explosive materials code 500 NFPA 496 Purged and pressurized enclosures for electrical equipment 497–8 NFPA 497 Recommended practice for classification of hazardous locations for electrical installations 497 NFPA 654 Prevention of dust explosions 500 NFPA 750 Water mist fire protection systems 499 Niacinamide (design exercise) 1152 Nickel and alloys 414 costs 408 properties 408 Nitric acid (design exercise) 1156 Nitrobenzene (design exercise) 1148 Nitrogen compounds, heats of combustion 102 Nitrogen, cost of 348 Noise 495, 1085 Nomographs, prediction of HTUs in packed columns 757 Non-key components, distribution of, in multicomponent distillation 666, 677 Nonlinear programming 35 Non-Newtonian fluids, pressure drop calculations 248 Non-reclosing pressure relief devices 1049 Non-return valves 243, 243 Nozzles, in jacketed vessels 940 NPSH (net positive suction head) 257 NPV (Net present value) 366 NRTL (non-random two-liquid) equation 464 NTU (Number of Transfer Units), in heat exchangers 796 Nucleate boiling 893 Number of columns 666 Number of heat exchangers in network 137 Number of independent components 57 Number of velocity heads heat exchangers 827 pipe fittings and valves 249 Nusselt model of condensation laminar flow 871 Nusselt number, heat exchangers 823–7 Nutsche filters 554 Objective function 20 O’Connell’s correlation (plate efficiency) 701 Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) 482 Offsite (OSBL) capital costs 299 s-Ofloxacin (design exercise) 1160 Oil and Gas Journal 336 Oil Pollution Act (OPA) 1079 Oldershaw column 699 Omeprazole (Prilosece) (design exercise) 1160 Onda’s method for prediction of HTUs in packed columns 754 OPA (Oil Pollution Act) 1079 Openings, compensation for 993 Operating costs 302, 334–352 estimation of 334–352 Operating labor costs 302 Operating lines (distillation) 654 Operating manuals 15 Optimization 19–43 constraints in 21 gradient method 35 industrial practice 38 integer programming 36 linear programming 33 multiple variable problems 30–6 nonlinear programming 35 of batch/semi-continuous processes 39 1237 INDEX of distillation column 40 of flow sheets using process simulation programs 219, 221 of process designs 39 of process operations 38 of superstructures 37 search methods 27 single variable 26 Optimum pipe diameter 266 Optimum reflux ratio 644 Optimum sequencing of columns 666 Organization, of chemical engineering projects 11–13 Orifice scrubbers 602 Oscillating screens 543 OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administration) 482 OSHA codes and standards 29 CFR 1910L Fire protection 499 29 CFR 1910.95 Occupational noise exposure 495 29 CFR 1910.119 Process safety management of hazardous chemicals 492, 503 29 CFR 1910.1096 Ionizing radiation 491 29 CFR 1910.1200 Hazard communication standard 491 29 CFR 1910.3075 Electrical 497 Oslo crystallizer 583 Ovality (out-of-roundness) of vessels 996 Overall column efficiency 699 Overall heat transfer coefficients 796 definition 795 typical values 797–8, 799 Overheads (costs) direct 302 plant 303 Oxidation, high-temperature, of steel 406 Oxygen (small scale portable/medical) (design exercise) 1150 P & I diagrams see Piping and Instrument diagrams Packaging costs 302 Packed bed reactors 629 Packed column design 741–771 bed height 747 column diameter (capacity) 758 design procedure 742 plates vs packing 741 selection of packing 743 size of packing 746 Packed columns control of 284 flooding in 758 hold-down plates 769 installing packings into 771 internal fittings in 764–771 liquid distributors 765, 767–8 liquid hold-up in 771 liquid redistribution in 768, 769–70 packing support 764 Packed glands 259 Packing characteristics 744 Packing, effective area of 744 Packing efficiencies, typical values 747, 753 Packing size considerations 746 Packings for columns 743–7 costs 320 wetting rates 771 Paints (protective coatings) 421 Pall rings 320, 743, 745 Pan dryers 319 Pan filters 557, 557 Paroxetine (Paxile) (design exercise) 1160 Partial condensers (coolercondensers) 880 design of 881–2 Particle size distribution, simulation of 168 Parts per billion (ppb) 52 Parts per million (ppm) 52 Pastes, mixing of 618 Patents 429 Pay-back time 363–4 Peclet number 706 PEL (permissible exposure limits) 488 Peng–Robinson (P–R) equation 463 Percentage by volume (v/v) 51 Percentage by weight (w/w) 51 Perforated plate see Sieve plate Performance coefficient, heat pumps 123 Permissible exposure limits (PEL) 488 Petrochemicals Notebook 429 PFD see Process Flow Diagram Phase equilibria 460 choice of method for design calculations 469 flow chart for 471 Phase equilibrium data 460, 466 Phenol (design exercise) 1148 Phosgene (design exercise) 1149 Phosphoric acid (design exercise) 1151 Physical properties information sources 430 prediction of 433 Physical property data bank(s) 431, 1119–40 PID see Piping and Instrumentation diagrams Pilot operated relief valves 1045, 1046 Pinch point in distillation 644 in heat transfer 112 Pinch technology 124–45 four-stream problem 127–9 multiple utilities 139 simple two-stream problem 125–7 Pinch (temperature) 129 decomposition of heat recovery problem 130 design of heat exchanger network above 134 design of heat exchanger network below 135 origin and significance of 129 Pipe cost 268 Pipe diameter see Economic ; Equivalent ; optimum pipe diameter 266, 269 Pipe fittings 264 pressure loss in 249 Pipe friction factor 247 Pipe-line calculations (pressure drop) 246–51 Pipe roughness 246 Pipe schedule number 264 Pipe size selection 265–70 Pipe stressing 265 Pipe supports 264 Pipe velocities, typical values 265 Pipe wall thickness 263 Piping and Instrument (P & I) diagrams 154, 236–41, 288 symbols 237–41, 1089 typical example 288 Piping and instrumentation 235–289 1238 Piping isometric drawing 272 Piping, mechanical design of 262 Piping systems codes and standards 262 layout and design of 265 Pitting corrosion 404 Plait point, solvent extraction 774 Plant attainment 10 Plant costs 309 Plant layout 1069–74 factors 1069 techniques 1072 Plant location, factors affecting 1066 Plant overheads (costs) 303 Plant services (utilities) 342–8, 1074–6 costs 302 Plastics, as construction materials 417–9 Plate construction 713–6 downcomers 714, 717 sectional plates 713, 714 side-stream and feed points 715, 717 stacked plates 713, 716 structural design 715 tolerances 715 Plate contactors 709–16 Plate design 716–40 see also Sieve tray design Plate efficiency 655–6, 698–708 AIChE method 704 correction for entrainment 708 definitions 698 effect of plate parameters on 707 O’Connell’s correlation 701 prediction of 699–708 typical values 700 Van Winkle’s correlation 703 Plate-and-frame filters 320, 554, 555 Plate-fin exchangers 928 Plate heat exchangers 918–28 advantages 919 costs 320 design of 920–7 disadvantages 919 flow arrangements 921, 922 heat transfer coefficients 922 pressure drop 923 selection of 919 temperature correction factor 921 Plate separators 589 Plate spacing 708 INDEX Plates (contacting) costs 320 liquid flow on 711, 715 operating range 718 selection of 712 vs packing 741 weight 1004 Platinum, as construction material 416 Plug valves 241, 242 Pneumatic conveying 626 Pneumatic dryers 574, 575 Point efficiency 698 Political considerations, in site selection 1068 Pollution Prevention Act (PPA) 1079 Polyethylene 417, 418 Polylactic acid (design exercise) 1148 Polymers as materials of construction 417–9 costs 417 properties 417 Polypropylene 417, 418 Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) 417, 418 Polytropic compression and expansion 104, 107 Polytropic efficiency 106 Poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) 417, 418 Poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) 418 Pool boiling 894 Positive displacement compressors 622 Positive displacement pumps 243 selection of 624 see also Reciprocating pumps; Rotary pumps Potassium permanganate (design exercise) 1150 Potential energy 83 Potential loss, in Dow F & E Index calculations 511 Power (electricity) 1074 costs 347 Power requirements agitated vessels 616–9 pumps 251 Poynting correction 461 PPA (Pollution Prevention Act) 1079 PPDS (Physical Property Data Service) 431 Prandtl number condensate film 873 gases 440 Precipitation 581 Precision of data 160 Prediction of physical properties 433–460 critical constants 457 density 434 diffusion coefficients 452 latent heat of vaporization 449 specific heat 442 surface tension 455 thermal conductivity 440 vapor pressure 451 viscosity 436 Preliminary estimates 306 Present value or worth 365 see also Net present value Pressing (expression) 568 Pressure as process hazard 493 heat capacity affected by 92 heat of reaction affected by 99 Pressure control 277 Pressure drop coils 941 condensers 884 control valves 249, 255 cyclones 596 fired heaters 937 heat exchanger shells 822, 866 heat exchanger tubes 822 pipelines 246–51 plate heat exchangers 923 sieve plates 728 two-phase flow 248 valves and fittings 249 Pressure hazards 493 Pressure losses, miscellaneous 248 Pressure ratings of flanges 1030 Pressure relief 493–4, 1038–53 critical flow, effect on 1048 discharge system design 1049–50, 1051 instrumentation response 1040 non-reclosing devices 1049 relief loads 1041 relief scenarios 1039 relief valves 494, 1043–9 under-pressure relief 1050 vent piping 1049–50, 1051 see also Relief valves Pressure relief devices 494, 1038–53 breaking pin devices 1049 bursting discs 494, 1049 1239 INDEX relief valves 494, 1043–9 see also Relief valves Pressure safety valves see Relief valves Pressure testing, pressure vessels 1034 Pressure vessel design 961–1037 for external pressure 995–9 fundamental principles 966–80 general considerations 980–6 Pressure vessels classification of 963 codes and standards for 963 combined loading of 999–1013 compensation for branches and openings 993 costs 320 data/specification requirements 962, 980 design loads 985 design methods 980–1037 design pressure 980 design temperature 980 fatigue in 1033 heads and closures for 987 high-pressure 1035–7 materials of construction 981, 982 maximum allowable working pressure 980 minimum wall thickness 985 pressure testing of 1034 supports 1013–20 welded joints 1031–4 Preventative measures 513–4 Price data 334 from consultants 336 forecasting of 338 online sources 337 Principal stresses 966 PRO/II simulation package 163 Problem table method, in process integration 130 Process control see Control Process costs 309, 334–352 Process economics 297–388 Process flames, as ignition sources 496 Process flow diagram (PFD) 154 examples 157–9 symbols 1088–98 Process hazards 493–501 explosions 499 fires 496 human error 501 in Dow F & E Index 508 loss of containment 496 noise 495 pressure 493 temperature deviations 494 Process integration 124–45 composite curves 128, 129 computer tools 139 heat cascade in 131 importance of pinch temperature 129 maximum energy recovery 133 minimum number of exchangers 137 other process operations 139 problem table method 130 stream splitting in 136 Process manuals 15 Process simulation commercial software for 154, 162, 163 component specification 165 convergence methods 210 convergence problems and strategies 214 for flowsheet optimization 219, 221 hypocomponents see pseudocomponents manual methods for acceleration of convergence 211 of distillation 180–93 of dynamic processes see Dynamic simulation of heat exchange 197–202 of hydraulics 202 of reactors 169–179 of recycle processes 207 of unit operations 169 particle size distribution in 168 program architecture 162–5, 164 programs 163 pseudocomponents 166 recycles in 207 salts 167 solids 167 spreadsheet models in 204 unit operation models 170 use of controllers for flowsheet optimization 220 user-defined components 168 user-defined unit operations 204 Process unit risk analysis summary (in Dow F & E Index) 511 Process water 1075 Procurement Product margin 304 Product storage Profit 305 Program architecture, for process simulation 162–5, 164 Programs for process simulation 163 Project documentation 13–15 Project evaluation 363–380 Project financing 358 Project manager 11 Project organization 11–13, 12–13 Project selection 384–8 decision criteria 387 non-financial criteria 371 Projects, types 384 Propagation of variance 382 Property taxes 303 Propylene (design exercises) by catalytic dehydrogenation 1149 by steam cracking 1147 Propylene glycol by fermentation (design exercise) 1149 Propylene oxide (design exercise) 1149 Protective coatings (paints) 421 Pseudo-binary systems, multicomponent distillation 667–71 Pseudocomponents 166 Pseudoephedrine (design exercise) 1160 PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene) 417, 418 Pump efficiency, centrifugal pumps 251, 254, 623, 625 Pump shaft seals 259–62 Pumping power 251, 623 Pumps 243–62, 623 and line calculation sheet 245, 274, 1198 characteristic (performance) curves 254, 255 control of 278, 280 costs 320 net positive suction head 257 power requirements 251, 623 seals for 259 selection of 243–6, 245, 624 specific speed 244 system curve (operating line) 254 see also Centrifugal pumps; Diaphragm pumps; Reciprocating pumps; Rotary pumps 1240 Purchased equipment cost see Equipment costs Purge streams, in material balances 70 PVC (poly(vinyl chloride)) 417, 418 PVDF (poly(vinylidene fluoride)) 417, 418 Pyridine (design exercise) 1149 q-line (distillation) 655 Quantitative risk analysis 526, 528 computer software for 531 Quasi-Newton convergence method 211 Quench towers 929 Radiant heat transfer 935 Radiation 491 Rake classifiers 547, 547 Random packings 743–6 Raoult’s law 462 Rapid methods for cost estimation 307 Raschig rings 320, 743, 745 Rate of return on investment (ROR) 365 Rating methods, for distillation columns 694 Ratio control 280 Raw materials costs 302 site selection influenced by availability of 1066 RCRA (Resource Conservation and Recovery Act) 1078 Reaction yield 64 Reactive distillation 698 Reactor design 626–630 batch or continuous processing 627 homogeneous or heterogeneous reactions 627 procedure 629 requirements to be satisfied 626 Reactor types 627–9 fluidized bed 629 packed bed 629 stirred tank 628 tubular 629 Reactors 626–30 control of 283, 285 costs 320 simulation of 169–179 Reagent, use of excess 62 Reboiler design 890–918 INDEX forced-circulation reboilers 902–3 kettle reboilers 913–8 thermosiphon reboilers 903–13 Reboilers control of 278 costs 320 types 891 Reciprocating compressors 319, 622 Reciprocating pumps 243, 623, 624 Reciprocating screens 543 Rectifying section (distillation column) 643 Recycle processes 68 simulation of 207 Recycling of waste 1080 Redlich–Kwong (R–K) equation 462 Redlich–Kwong Soave (R–K–S) equation 463 Reflux, in distillation 644–5 Reflux ratio 644 minimum 644 optimum 644 total 644 Refractory materials 420 Refrigeration 1076 costs 320, 347 Regulatory compliance projects 384 Relative costs of metals 408 Relative volatility 462 Relaxation methods, multicomponent distillation 696 Reliability of equipment 527 Relief loads 1041 Relief scenarios 1039 Relief valves 494, 1043–9 pilot operated 1045, 1046 sizing 1047 spring-loaded 1043, 1044 Rent costs (land and buildings) 303 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) 1078 Return on assets 362 Return on equity 362 Return on investment 365 Revamp projects 385 Revenues 303, 350 Revolving screens 543 Riboflavin (design exercise) 1152 Riffled tables 548 Rigorous methods, distillation 693–7 Rings (column packing) 743–7 costs 320 Risk analysis 526 computer software for 531 of investments 381 see also Dow fire and explosion index; Safety analysis methods Risperidone (Risperdale) (design exercise) 1160 Rotary compressors 622 Rotary dryers 319, 573, 574 Rotary pumps 623, 624 Royalties 303 Rubber 419 corrosion resistance 1112–6 Saddle supports 1013, 1014–6 design of 1015 standard dimensions 1015–6 stress in vessel wall due to 1014 Saddles (column packing) 743–7 costs 320 Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) 1078 SAFETI software 531 Safety alarms 285, 484 Safety analysis methods 502, 502 failure mode effect analysis (FMEA) 503 fault tree analysis 526 hazard and operability studies (HAZOP) 517 quantitative risk analysis 526 safety check lists 531 safety indices 506 Safety and loss prevention 481–533 Safety check lists 531 Safety factors (design factors) 17 Safety hazards 486–501 Safety indices 506 Safety legislation 482 Safety literature 482 Safety trips 285, 484 Safety valves see Relief valves Sales costs 303 Salicylic acid USP (design exercise) 1163 Salts, simulation of 167 SARA (Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act) 1079 Scaling factor in cyclone design calculations 594 Scraped-surface crystallizers 581 Screening (sieving) 543 Screens 543 grizzly 543 selection of 544, 546 1241 INDEX Screw conveyors 625 Screw presses 568 Screwed flanges 1022 Screwed joints 1022 Scroll discharge centrifuges 560 Scrubbers, for gas cleaning 591 SDWA (Safe Drinking Water Act) 1078 Sea water, corrosion in 404, 1102 Sealing strips, in pull-through bundle exchangers 827 Seal-less pumps 262 Seals, pump shaft 259–62 Secondary stresses 979 Sectional plates (in column) 713, 714 Sedimentation centrifuges 557, 559–563 liquid–liquid separation 589 sigma theory for 561 Sedimentation equipment, selection of 562, 563 Segmental baffles, in heat exchangers 811 Seismic analysis 1008 Seismic loads 985, 1008 Selectivity 64 data 67 Sensitivity analysis of process economics 380 parameters to investigate 381 Separation of dissolved liquids 590–1 of dissolved solids 577–582 Separation columns 641–779 see also Absorption columns; Distillation columns; Extraction columns Separation processes 543–609, 544 crystallization 581–2 drying 569–77 evaporation 577–81 filtration of gases 601–3 filtration of liquids 552–7 gas–liquid 603–19 gas–solid 591–603 in centrifuges 557–565 in cyclones 546, 565, 590, 593–601 liquid–liquid 582–91 liquid–solid 546, 550 selection of 544 solid–solid 543–51, 551 see also Absorption; Distillation; Extraction Sequencing of columns 666 Sequential-modular simulation programs 162 Services see Utilities Setraline hydrochloride (Zolofte) (design exercise) 1161 Settling chambers 593 Settling tanks (decanters) 584–9 Settling velocity 604 Shaft seals 260 Shared display symbols 239 Shell and header nozzles 814 Shell and tube exchangers 801–70 advantages 801 allocation of fluid streams 820 as condensers 870–90 baffles in 801, 810–12 Bell’s design method 853–70 construction details 801–15 costs 320 cross-flow zone 863 data sheet for 1204 design methods 832–870 designation 810 effect of fouling on pressure drop 866 flow-induced vibrations in 814 fluid physical properties in design 822 fluid velocities 821 general design considerations 831 Kern’s design method 832–53 minimum shell thickness 807 nomenclature of parts 801 nozzles, shell and header 814 overall heat transfer coefficients 796, 797–8, 799 passes in 806, 809, 810 pressure drop 822, 864, 866–7 pressure-drop limitations of design methods 866 shell and bundle geometry 864 shell-to-bundle clearance 807, 808 shell passes (types) 810 shell-side flow patterns 829 shell-side geometry 864 shells 806 specification sheet 1204 standards and codes for 803 support plates in 812 temperature driving force 815 tie rods in 812 tube arrangements 806, 1209 tube count 807 tube sheets (plates) 812, 1209 tube-side heat transfer coefficients 823–7 tube-side passes 806 tube-side pressure drop 827–8 tube sizes 805 types 801, 802–4 window zone 856 pressure drop 860 Shell passes (types), in heat exchangers 810 Shell-side flow patterns 829 Shell-side heat transfer coefficient Bell’s method 853–70 Kern’s method 832–853 Shell-side nozzle pressure drop 829 Shell-side pressure drop 822, 864, 866–7 Shells of revolution, membrane stresses in 968 Shipping costs 302 Short-cut methods, distillation 667–693 Short-tube evaporators 579 Shrink-fitted compound vessels 1035 Shutdown trips 285 SI units 18 conversion factors 19, 1141–3 Side-entering agitators 618 Side streams, take-off from plates 715, 717 Sieve plate see Sieve tray Sieve tray 320, 710, 716–40 performance diagram 718 Sieve tray design 710, 716–40 areas 719 diameter 720 downcomer liquid back-up 730 entrainment correlation 721, 723 hole pitch 727 hole size 726 hydraulic gradient 728 liquid-flow arrangement 721, 722 liquid throw 728 perforated area 726 pressure drop 728 procedure 719 requirements 716 weep point 722, 724 weir dimensions 725 weir liquid crest 724 Sieving 543 Sifting screens 544 1242 Sigma theory for centrifuges 561 Silicate materials 419–21 Silver, as construction material 416 SIMPLEX algorithm 34 Simulation programs 154, 162, 163 see also Process simulation Simultaneous simulation programs 162 Simvastatin (Zocore) (design exercise) 1161 Sink-and-float separators 549 Site layout 1068–9 Site selection, factors affecting 1065–86 Six-tenths rule 308 Skirt supports 1013, 1016–20 base ring and anchor bolt design 1018 skirt thickness 1017 Skirts, on pressure vessel ends and closure 988–9, 991 Slip-on flanges 1022 Smith–Brinkley method, in multicomponent distillation 671 Smoker equations 661–2 Software for process simulation 154, 162, 163 Solid bowl centrifuges 560 Solid–liquid extraction (of dissolved liquids) 591 Solid–liquid separators 550–77 selection of 551 Solid–solid separators 543–51 selection of 545, 551 Solid wastes energy recovery from 118 treatment of 1083 Solids drying of 569–77 heat capacities 442 mixing of 618 simulation of 167 storage of 626 thermal conductivity 440 Solution, integral heats of 94 Solvent extraction 591, 772–9 extractor design 773–9 immiscible solvents 777 selection of equipment 773, 774 supercritical fluids 779 Solvent selection 772 Souders–Brown equation 709 Souders’ equation 436 INDEX Source reduction, for waste minimization 1080 Sour-water systems 469 Specific enthalpy calculation of 89 prediction using equations of state 471 Specific heats 442 as function of temperature 89 of gases 446, 1119–40 of mixtures 443 of solids and liquids 442 Specific speed of pumps 244 Specification sheets (equipment data sheets) 15, 1193–1208 Spherical pressure vessels 986 Spiral heat exchangers 928 Spray dryers 319, 575, 576 Spreadsheets 1193–1208 design basis 1194 economic analysis 1200 effluent summary 1206 failure mode effect analysis (FMEA) 1201 in process simulation 204 problem table (in process integration) 141 Spring-loaded relief valves 1043, 1044 Stack design, fired heaters 937 Stacked plates (in column) 713, 716 Stage efficiency, in distillation 655, 656, 698 Stage equations, in distillation 645 Stainless steel(s) 411–4 corrosion resistance 413 costs 408 duplex steels 414 high-alloy steels 413 properties 399, 413 surface finish 410 types 411, 412 Standard flanges 1028 Standard heats of formation 101 Standard heats of reaction 98 Standard integral heat of solution 94 Standards 16 for heat exchangers 803 for piping 262, 263 for pressure vessels 964, 964–6 see also ANSI; API; ASME; ASTM; BSI; DIN; EN; ISA; ISO; NFPA; OSHA Start-up schedule 367 Static electricity 498 Static mixers 613 costs 319 Statistical methods for financial risk analysis 381 Steam 343–6, 1075 condensing heat transfer coefficient 878 costs 343 Steam distillation 697 Steam generation for heat recovery 116, 118 Steam jet ejectors 621 Steam system 344 Steam turbine drivers 320 Steel costs 408 properties 399, 411 see also Carbon steel; Stainless steel Stefan–Boltzmann equation 935 Step counting methods, in cost estimation 308–12 Stiffened vessels, resistance to failure 1003 Stiffening rings for pressure/vacuum vessels 996, 998, 1003 Stiffness, of materials 400 Stirred tank reactors 628 control of 283, 285 heat transfer to 938–45 mixing in 614–8 Stockholders’ equity 358 Stoichiometric factor 64 Stoichiometry 52–3 Stokes’ law 586 Stoneware 420 corrosion resistance 1113–7 Storage 620 of gases 623 of liquids 624, 1028 of solids 626 Storage tanks, design of 1028 Straight line depreciation 355 Stream splitting, in process integration 136 Stress corrosion cracking 405 Stress factors 979 Stresses, in flat plates 975 Stripping columns 643 Stripping section (distillation column) 643 Structured packings 320, 746 1243 INDEX Sub-cooling in condensers 879 Successive substitution convergence method 210 Sugden’s parachor 456 Sulfidation, high temperature 406 Sulfur dioxide treatment (design exercise) 1164 Sulfur recovery (design exercise) 1164 Sumatriptan (Imigrane) (design exercise) 1161 Supercritical fluids, extraction using 779 Superfund (Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act, or CERCLA) 1079 Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA) 1079 Superfund charges 303 Supervision costs 302 Surface finish 410 Surface tension 455 column packing 757 of mixtures 456 Symbols, flow sheet/piping diagram 237–41, 1089–98 System boundary, choice of 53 Tables, separation process 548 TAC (Total annualized cost) 369 Tall columns 667 deflection of 1007 eccentric loads on 1008 wind loads on 1005 Tank crystallizers 581 Tanks costs 320 design of 1028 Tantalum 416 Tax allowances 353 Taxable income 353 Taxes 302, 352, 360 TCOP (Total cost of production) 369 TEMA (Thermal Exchanger Manufacturers’ Association) standards 796, 800, 802–10, 817 Temperature control 278, 281 Temperature correction factor, heat exchangers 816–10, 921 Temperature cross, heat exchangers 197, 816 Temperature deviations, as hazards 494 Temperature driving force in condensers 878, 881 in heat exchangers 815–20 Temperature effects, on material properties 401, 982 Temperature-enthalpy diagrams 126 Tensile strength 398–9 typical values 982 Texas City (BP Americas) disaster 500, 501 Theoretical stage 645, 646 Theories of failure 967 Thermal conductivity 440 gases 441 liquids 441 metals 823 mixtures 442 solids 440 Thermal efficiency, fired heaters 938 Thermal expansion, in piping systems 265 Thermal stress 980 Thermodynamics, first law 82 Thermoplastic materials 417, 1106–11 Thermosetting materials 417, 1106–11 Thermosiphon reboilers 320, 891, 903–13 design of 903–13 Thick-walled vessels see High-pressure vessels Thickeners 547, 552, 553 Thiele–Geddes method, multicomponent distillation 695 Thin-walled vessels 986 Threshold Limit Value (TLV) 448 Threshold problems, heat exchanger networks for 139 Tie components, in material balances 60 Tile linings 420 Time value of money 365 Titanium 408, 415 Tocopherol (design exercise) 1153 Torispherical heads (pressure vessels) 974, 990 Torque loads, on vessels 1002, 1009 Total annualized cost (TAC) 369 Total cost of production (TCOP) 369 Total reflux 644 Toughness 400 Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) 483 Toxic waste disposal (design exercise) 1164 Toxicity 487, 488 Trace quantities, effects 160, 409 Trade-offs, in design optimization 25 Transfer pricing 341 Transfer units, prediction of height 748 Transport 620 in site selection 1067 of gases 620–3 of liquids 623–4 of solids 624–6 Tray dryers 570 Trays see Plates; Sieve trays Tresca’s theory 967 Trips, safety 285 Trouton’s rule 449 TSCA (Toxic Substances Control Act) 483 Tube plates see Tube sheets Tube rolling 813 Tube sheets (plates) 812 design procedures 1028–31 layouts 806, 1209–13 Tube vibrations, flow-induced 814 Tube-side heat transfer coefficients, heat exchangers 823–7 Tube-side pressure drop, heat exchangers 827–8 Tubular bowl centrifuges 559, 560 Tubular Heat Exchangers Manufacturers Association see TEMA Tubular reactors 629 Turbo-expanders 121 Turn-down ratio 713 Two-phase flow, pressure drop in 248 U-tube heat exchanger 320, 801, 803 Ullman’s Encyclopedia of Industrial Technology 429 Ultimate oxygen demand (UOD) 1084 Ultimate tensile strength (UTS) 982 Unconfined vapor cloud explosions 499 Under-pressure (vacuum) 1050 Underwood equation 675 1244 UNIFAC method 466 UNIQUAC (universal quasi-chemical) equation 464 UniSim Process Design (Honeywell Inc.) 41, 163 see also Process simulation Unit operation models 170 Unit operations, simulation of 169 user-defined unit operations 204 Units 18 conversion factors 19, 1141–3 systems 18 Unsteady-state energy balance calculations 113 Unsteady-state material balance calculations 72 UOD (ultimate oxygen demand) 1084 Urea (design exercises) conventional route 1176 DSM process 1156 Use of controllers in process simulation for flowsheet optimization 220 User-defined components 168 User-defined unit operations 204 Utilities (services) 342–8, 1074–6 costs 302, 342–8 site selection influenced by 1067 Vacuum pumps 621 Vacuum relief 1050 Vacuum vessels see Pressure vessel design, for external pressure Validity of cost estimates 333 Valve plates (valve trays) 320, 711 Valve selection 241–3 Valve trays (valve plates) 320, 711 Valve types ball 242 butterfly 243 check/non-return 243 diaphragm 242 gate 242 globe 242 plug 242 Valves, pressure drop across 249 Van Winkle’s correlation (plate efficiency) 703 Van-stone flanges 1022 Vaporizers control of 278 design of 890–918 see also Reboilers Vaporization, latent heat of 449 INDEX Vapor–liquid equilibria at high pressures 469 prediction of 465, 647 Vapor–liquid equilibrium data 460 Vapor–liquid separators 603–9, 641–772 Vapor pressure 451 Vapors, density 435 Variable costs of production (VCOP , variable operating costs) 302 VCOP 302 Velocity heads, number of heat exchangers 827–8 pipe fittings and valves 249 Venlafaxine (Effexore) (design exercise) 1161 Vent gases, energy recovery from 118 Vent piping 1049–50, 1051 Venturi scrubbers 602 Vertical tube evaporators 319 Vessel heads 987–93 under external pressure 997 Vessel jackets 939–41 Vessel shapes 969 Vessel supports 1013–20 brackets 1014, 1020, 1021 saddles 1013, 1014–16 skirts 1013, 1016–20 Vibrating screens 543 Vinyl chloride, manufacture of 69 Viscosity 436 gases 440 liquids 436, 1119–40 effect of pressure 439 variation with temperature 437 mixtures of liquids 439 Viscosity correction factor, in heat transfer 826 Visual impact of plant 1085 Viton 419 Vitreous enamel, corrosion resistance 1113–7 Volume basis of composition 51 Wages 302, 350 Washing of gases 602 Waste gas heating value 119 Waste management 1082–4 aqueous, treatment of 1083–4 biological treatment of 1083–4 discharge to sewers 1084 disposal costs 349 energy recovery from 118 gaseous 118, 1082 incineration of 118, 120, 1082–3 landfill 1081 liquid 118, 1081 reduction of 1080–1 solid 118, 1083 Waste minimization 1080–2 source reduction 1080 five-step review 1081 Waste recycling 1080–1 Waste-heat boilers 115 in nitric acid manufacture 117 Water costs 347 demineralized 1075 for general use 1075 heat transfer coefficient in tubes 827 physical properties 841 Water-cooling towers 929 Water-tube boiler, as waste-heat boiler 118 Weber equation 441 Weep point, in sieve plate design 722, 724 Weeping, in plate columns 718 Wegstein convergence method 210 Weight contacting plates 1004 insulation 1005 ladders 1005 platforms 1005 vessels 1004 Weight basis of composition 51 Weight loads, on pressure vessels 1004 Weir dimensions, sieve plates 725 Weld decay 404 Welded joint design 1031–4 Welded joint efficiency 983, 984 Welded plate closures (pressure vessels) 988–9 Welded plate heat exchangers 927 Welding-neck flanges 1022 Wet scrubbers 602 Wetting rates, column packings 771 Wilke–Chang equation 453 Wilson equation 464 Wind loads on vessels 985, 1005 Wind pressure on columns 1006 Wind-induced vibrations in columns 1008 1245 INDEX Wiped-film evaporators 579, 580 Wireless control systems 289 Wire-wound vessels 1036 Wood, corrosion resistance 1113–7 Work done 83 during compression/expansion 104 Working capital 301 Worm conveyors 625 Wound vessels 1036 Xenon recovery (design exercise) 1154 Yield data 67 in chemical reactors 64 of chemical plant 65 Yield strength 982 Zeolite synthesis (design exercise) 1156 Zirconium and alloys 416 Zuber correlation 895, 913 .. .CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN This page intentionally left blank CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN Principles, Practice and Economics of Plant and Process Design GAVIN TOWLER RAY... Nature of Design The Anatomy of a Chemical Manufacturing Process The Organization of a Chemical Engineering Project 11 Project Documentation 13 Codes and Standards 16 Design Factors (Design Margins)... knowledge of unit operations and design Some of the earlier chapters of the book can also be used in introductory chemical engineering classes and by other disciplines in the chemical and process