Crop Post-Harvest: Science and Technology Volume 1 Principles and Practice Edited by Peter Golob, Graham Farrell and John E. Orchard Blackwell Science © 2002 Blackwell Science Ltd, a Blackwell Publishing Company Editorial Offi ces: Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 0EL, UK Tel: +44 (0)1865 206206 Blackwell Science, Inc., 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148-5018, USA Tel: +1 781 388 8250 Iowa State Press, a Blackwell Publishing Company, 2121 State Avenue, Ames, Iowa 50014-8300, USA Tel: +1 515 292 0140 Blackwell Publishing Asia Pty, 550 Swanston Street, Carlton South, Melbourne, Victoria 3053, Australia Tel: +61 (0)3 9347 0300 Blackwell Wissenschafts Verlag, Kurfürstendamm 57, 10707 Berlin, Germany Tel: +49 (0)30 32 79 060 The right of the Author to be identifi ed as the Author of this Work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher. First published 2002 by Blackwell Science Ltd Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available ISBN 0-632-05723-8 A catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library Set in 9/11.5 pt Times by Sparks Computer Solutions Ltd, Oxford http://www.sparks.co.uk Printed and bound in Great Britain by Ashford Colour Press Ltd, Gosport, UK For further information on Blackwell Science, visit our website: www.blackwell-science.com This series of volumes is dedicated to the memory of Dr Philip C. Spensley, Director of the Tropical Products Institute 1966–1982 for his leadership in a period of great expansion of post-harvest research and development Part of a three-volume set from Blackwell Publishing and the Natural Resources Institute, University of Greenwich: Crop Post-Harvest: Science and Technology Volume 1: Principles and Practice Edited by P. Golob, G. Farrell and J.E. Orchard 0 632 05723 8 Crop Post-Harvest: Science and Technology Volume 2: Durables Edited by R.J. Hodges and G. Farrell 0 632 05724 6 Crop Post-Harvest: Science and Technology Volume 3: Perishables Edited by D. Rees, J.E. Orchard and G. Farrell 0 632 05725 4 v Contents Contributors ix Foreword by Professor Chris Haines xi Preface xiii 1 Post-Harvest Systems in Agriculture 1 F. Goletti and E. Samman 2 Biology of Plant Commodities 35 D. Rees and L. Hammond 3 Physical Factors in Post-Harvest Quality 69 A.D. Devereau Properties of stored products 69 A.D. Devereau The principal physical factors 74 A,D. Devereau Water 77 R. Myhara Measurement of physical factors 83 A.D. Devereau Moisture content 84 C. Anderson 4 Biological Factors in Post-Harvest Quality 93 G. Farrell Post-harvest pests and the damage they cause 93 G. Farrell Pests of durable crops – insects and arachnids 94 R.J. Hodges Pests of durable crops – vertebrates 112 A.N. Meyer and S. R. Belmain Pests of durable crops – moulds 120 P.W. Wareing Contentsvi Diseases and pests of perishable crops 131 G. Farrell 5 Technology and Management of Storage 141 R.A. Boxall Storage losses 143 R.A. Boxall Storage structures 169 R.A. Boxall Storage of horticultural produce 176 S.J. Taylor and R.D, Bancroft Selection of stores for durable commodities 191 R.A. Boxall Small-scale farm storage in the developing world 192 J.R. Brice Transit or trader storage 200 R.A. Boxall Medium and large-scale storage 200 R.A. Boxall Storage management 204 R.A. Boxall 6 Pest Management 233 P. Golob Safety 234 P. Golob Insect control 242 L.A. Birkinshaw Inert dusts 270 T.E. Stathers Botanicals 280 S.R. Belmain Rodent control 284 A.N. Meyer and S.R. Belmain Bird control 295 S.R. Belmain and A.N. Meyer Moulds and bacteria 299 G. Farrell Approaches to pest management in stored grain 301 R.J. Hodges 7 Remedial Treatments in Pest Management 321 R.W.D. Taylor and P. Golob Fumigation 321 R.W.D. Taylor Contents vii Radiation disinfestation 338 A. D. Devereau Other methods of disinfestation and protection 342 P. Golob 8 Food Processing and Preservation 360 A.A. Swetman Food preservation 360 L. Nicolaides and P.W. Wareing Packaging 372 J.H. New Flour 379 J.F. Wood Oilseeds, oils and fats 386 A.A. Swetman Weaning foods 396 L. Hammond Animal feeds 401 J.F. Wood 9 Food Systems 423 P.S. Hindmarsh Access to food 423 P.S. Hindmarsh Credit and storage 424 P.S. Hindmarsh The case for food security reserves 427 P.S. Hindmarsh Market access 431 H.M. Kindness and A.E. Gordon Seed security 434 D.J. Walker Food aid 437 D.J. Walker 10 Applied Research and Dissemination 441 H.C. Coote and N.K. Marsland Extension methods and technology transfer in less developed countries 441 H.C. Coote Farmer participation in assessing post-harvest needs 447 N.K. Marsland A methodological framework for combining quantitative and qualitative survey methods 448 N.K. Marsland, I.M. Wilson, S. Abeyasekera and U.K. Kleih Monitoring investment and the evaluation of impact 457 N.K. Marsland, I.M. Wilson, S. Abeyasekera and U.K. Kleih Contentsviii The impact of post-harvest research on household food security 460 N.K. Marsland, I.M. Wilson, S. Abeyasekera and U.K. Kleih 11 Trade and International Agreements 464 P. Greenhalgh and J.A. Conway The WTO and other international and regional organisations 465 P. Greenhalgh International commodity agreements 470 P. Greenhalgh Trade associations 471 P. Greenhalgh Commercial practices 472 J.A. Conway Ethical trade 476 M.E. Blowfi eld Phytosanitary agreements, requirements and standards 482 R. Black Food safety and HACCP 502 L. Nicolaides Glossary 511 Appendix 1: Some Important Post-harvest Pests 521 Appendix 2: Some Important Post-harvest Pathogens 539 Appendix 3: Some Plants of Post-harvest Concern 545 Index 548 ix Contributors Roger D. Bancroft, Steven R. Belmain, Lucy A. Bir- kinshaw, Robert Black, Mick E. Blowfi eld, Robin A. Boxall, John R. Brice, John A. Conway, H. Claire Coote, Andrew D. Devereau, Graham Farrell, Peter Golob, Ann E. Gordon, Peter Greenhalgh, Lynda Hammond, Paul S. Hindmarsh, Richard J. Hodges, Heather M. Kindness, Ulrich K. Kleih, Neil K. Marsland, Adrian N. Meyer, Linda Nicolaides, John E. Orchard, Deborah Rees, Tanya E. Stathers, Anthony A. Swetman, Robert W.D. Taylor, Sarah J. Taylor, David J. Walker, Peter W. Ware- ing, John F. Wood: at the time of writing, all on the staff of the Natural Resources Institute, University of Green- wich, Chatham ME4 4TB, UK. Savitri Abeyasakera, University of Reading, Reading RG6 6AH, UK. Campbell Anderson, Campden and Chorleywood Food Research Association, Chipping Campden GL55 6LD, UK. Francesco Goletti, President, Agrifood Consulting In- ternational, 2715 Harmon Road, Silver Spring, MD 20902, USA. Adrian N. Meyer, The Acheta Partnership, Garden Cottage, Horsemoor, Chieveley, Newbury RG20 8XD, UK. Robert Myhara, Food Industry Consultant, 12-5 Cheryl Road, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K2G-0V5. John H. New, Stubbings, Weavering Street, Maidstone ME14 5JH, UK. Emma Samman, St Antony’s College, Oxford OX2 6JF, UK. Ian M. Wilson, University of Reading, Reading RG6 6AH, UK. xi Foreword by technological and economic improvements in com- modity marketing, processing, packaging, storage and distribution, that is, by actions to reduce losses and to add value and quality across the post-harvest (or post- production) sector. Public concern about food safety and quality is in- creasing both in industrialised countries and in urban centres in the developing world. This has been fuelled by long-term anxieties about pesticides and other con- taminants in food, by growing awareness of the preva- lence of food-borne disease, by the media profi le of spe- cifi c ‘food scares’, and by the impact of globalisation on quality management in international trade. While some elements of food safety and quality have their origins in the pre-harvest sector, many of the problems occur or develop post-harvest, and food quality management falls squarely in the post-harvest sector, whatever the origin of the problem. In spite of its importance to food security, food safety and food quality, the post-harvest sector has long been the poor relation of agricultural development. One possi- ble reason for this is that many of its proponents have fo- cused exclusively on their specifi c commodity sub-sec- tors, with separation of teams working on grains, roots and tubers, tree crops, oilseeds, fruit and vegetables. In recent years there has been greater convergence and in- teraction of these sub-sectors, and thus the development of cross-commodity post-harvest sectoral thinking. This three-volume series brings together the results of these interactions for the fi rst time in what should become the standard text on post-harvest technology. Chris Haines Professor of Post-Harvest Technology Natural Resources Institute University of Greenwich In our world of six billion people, almost 800 million are hungry or starving, a quarter of whom are children under fi ve years old. More than an eighth of all humans, or one-sixth of the developing world’s population, are chronically food-insecure and do not have access to suffi cient safe food at all times to lead healthy, ac- tive, productive lives. Food insecurity brings with it the vicious cycles of incapacity to work, increased susceptibility to communicable disease, permanent debilitation from childhood malnutrition, withdrawal from education, and social or political exclusion – and, ultimately, starvation. Yet all authorities agree that, globally, humankind harvests suffi cient food to meet the needs of all, and most analysts believe that produc- tion trends will continue to keep ahead of demand in the medium-term future. In many parts of the world, yield productivity has increased dramatically in recent decades due in part to changes in agronomic practice and, especially, to the improved crop varieties arising from international investment in the Green Revolution. Nevertheless, vast numbers of people are malnourished, notably in sub-Saharan Africa where one in three people are food-insecure. Efforts to improve harvest yield and quality continue apace, including contentious research on biotechnology and genetic modifi cation in plant and animal breed- ing. Increasingly, however, international attention in agricultural development is focused on issues, not of food production per se, but of people’s access to safe and nutritious food, which is compromised – and not just in developing countries – by poverty, war or civil insecurity, social or political exclusion, ignorance, ill- health, ineffective markets, and inadequate food quality management. Self-evidently, several of these constraints to access are only amenable to social and political solu- tions. However, many barriers to access could be solved [...]... 19 98 19 80 2.0 1. 5 1. 6 1. 2 1. 9 2.7 1. 7 1. 4 1. 6 1. 1 1. 3 2.0 1. 9 1. 4 1. 2 1. 3 1. 5 1. 1 1. 2 All agroprocessing 19 98 19 80 19 98 19 80 19 98 19 80 19 98 3 .1 3 .1 4.9 4.8 1. 2 1. 1 34.6 26.8 1. 5 0.7 1. 0 1. 4 2.8 2.4 4.7 1. 8 3 .1 2.8 3.4 2 .1 4.0 6.4 7.2 0.4 4.2 6.5 4.8 1. 1 1. 2 1. 4 0.9 1. 4 1. 3 1. 3 0.9 1. 3 32 .1 33 .1 36.4 41. 6 29.5 24.9 23.5 31. 7 1. 4 0.7 2.2 2.3 2 .1 2.2 1. 5 1. 7 42.0 34.9 0.6 1. 2 0.7 2.3 2.5 2.2 2.4 1. 6 1. 7... 5.0 22 .1 10.6 12 .7 13 .0 17 .2 14 .5 14 .2 22.3 24.4 18 .6 17 .9 29.3 22.6 14 .0 21. 2 21. 7 26.0 12 .0 10 .3 13 .1 8.4 19 .4 28.9 35.0 36.0 17 .6 14 .5 23.9 16 .3 5.5 14 .0 7.9 5.8 3.4 17 .9 2.6 11 .6 3.5 18 .9 3.4 11 .7 5.9 7.6 5 .1 6 .1 2.5 11 .3 3.8 9.5 14 .5 20.0 20.7 27.9 26.3 40.9 21. 9 32 .1 18.5 26.5 23.3 31. 6 25.9 30.3 10 .4 11 .8 9.6 12 .3 15 .1 21. 3 12 .9 7 .1 10.6 9.6 14 .8 14 .1 27.9 8.7 14 .4 7.6 15 .3 8.0 12 .5 8.3 10 .0 5.5... apparel Leather and fur Footwear 19 80 19 98 19 80 19 98 19 80 19 98 19 80 19 98 19 80 19 98 19 80 19 98 9.9 8 .1 2.2 1. 8 1. 4 1. 0 4.7 2.4 2.6 1. 3 0.4 0.2 0.6 0.3 8.0 9.5 10 .0 16 .5 8.9 7.9 6.5 13 .3 2.2 1. 6 1. 9 3.3 2.3 1. 1 1. 2 4.7 1. 6 0.3 2.2 1. 0 1. 3 0.2 1. 0 1. 4 4.3 4.9 3.2 9.3 3 .1 1.9 2.0 2.2 2.8 2.0 2.7 3.3 1. 4 1. 2 1. 2 1. 5 0.5 0.3 0.3 1. 0 0.3 0 .1 0 .1 0.2 0.9 0.2 0.4 0.9 0.5 0 .1 0 .1 0.5 11 .2 10 .2 3.7 3.6 3.5 3.4 8.6 6.2... 3 .11 and 3 .12 Sum of countries’ contributions is 74% (of developing countries’ total production) Colombia 2% Indonesia 10 % Argentina 14 % Brazil 17 % 6 Table 1. 3 Crop Post-Harvest: Science and Technology Distribution of world value-added by branch of agroindustry, 19 80 and 19 98 Source: UNIDO 2000 Branch Year Food 19 80 19 98 19 80 19 98 19 80 19 98 19 80 19 98 19 80 19 98 19 80 19 98 19 80 19 98 19 80 19 98 19 80 19 98... manufacturing, 19 90–95 Notes: 1 Australia (19 90); Austria (19 90–94); Canada (19 90– 91) ; Denmark (19 90–92); West Germany (19 90); Ireland (19 90– 91) ; Italy (19 91 94); New Zealand (19 90–93); Portugal (19 90–95); Sweden (19 90); United Kingdom (19 90, 19 92, 19 95); United States (19 92–95) 2 Indonesia (19 93–96); Korea (19 90–95); Malaysia (19 90–95); Philippines (19 92–95); Taiwan (19 92–96); Thailand (19 90– 91, 19 93–94)... Argentina (19 94); Chile (19 90–95); Colombia (19 91, 19 93–94); El Salvador (19 93–96); Panama (19 90) 4 Algeria (19 90–92); Egypt (19 91 94); Morocco (19 92–96) 5 Angola (19 92–93); Ethiopia (19 91 96); Kenya (19 90–93); Nigeria (19 91 92); Tanzania (19 90– 91) 6 Bangladesh (19 90–92); India (19 93–94); Sri Lanka (19 90–93) Source: UNIDO ISIC-3 digit dataset, 19 99 12 Crop Post-Harvest: Science and Technology 45 38. 71 40... 55 .1 41. 1 39.0 28 .1 44.6 59.4 54.2 30.0 21. 4 55.0 44.8 58.3 43.5 11 .8 8.5 10 .1 13.9 15 .3 14 .1 17.2 12 .0 10 .8 9.7 12 .3 8.8 6.7 10 .7 12 .4 13 .1 11. 8 12 .9 9 .1 8.0 9.7 10 .3 5.0 5.4 5.3 3.9 2.2 2.9 2.7 2.9 1. 3 0.6 3.2 4.8 3.9 3.5 3.7 responsible for close to half the supply of goods such as man-made fabric and footwear Developed countries account for the overwhelming majority of processed food imports: in 19 92,... 28.0 33 .1 32.6 35.3 33.7 29.2 29.3 32.6 34.2 29.3 34.6 43.6 42 .1 47.0 33.5 36.3 33 .1 32.9 36.3 33.6 35.7 7.4 9.4 11 .1 13 .1 12.2 13 .0 13 .2 17 .7 10 .9 11 .2 15 .3 19 .1 17.6 20.3 4.9 3.9 6.3 8.0 10 .1 12.8 8.2 See notes to Table 1. 1 Totals do not equal 10 0 because non-EU countries in Western Europe are not included Table 1. 4 Distribution of value-added among developing regions Latin America Africa South and East... manufacturing 1. 3 0.8 0.4 –0.9 1. 4 –2.9 –2.4 0.7 0.3 1. 8 1. 1 2.4 1. 6 19 80–90 19 90–98 Industrialised countries 1. 7 1. 4 0.7 1. 1 1. 7 0 2.4 2.2 3.0 1. 2 2.9 1. 6 2.6 19 80–90 19 90–98 Eastern Europe & CIS 2.4 2.4 1. 7 2.5 2.6 0.8 –0.6 2.0 –0.3 4.5 3.2 5.2 5 .1 4 .1 4.2 4.2 6.7 3.8 4.2 5.7 1. 3 –0.3 1. 5 –2.8 19 80–90 19 90–98 Developing countries 4.0 3.6 3.9 2.7 4.3 2.8 3 .1 1.9 0.7 –3.5 –3.4 –3.3 2.9 3.4 2.9 6.5 5.5 0.5 1. 9... 7 .1 3.0 1. 8 2.7 4.4 7.6 4.7 8.4 6.7 3 .1 6.9 7.5 19 80–90 19 90–98 19 80–90 19 90–98 2.8 2.5 1. 6 2 .1 2.2 2.0 0.6 1. 0 2.5 5.0 4.4 2nd generation NICs NICs Annual growth of value-added in agroindustry by selected groups, 19 80–90 and 19 90–98 Source: UNIDO 2000 Branch Table 1. 2 3.2 1. 2 2.4 3.9 3.3 3.2 1. 5 1. 6 1. 5 0.9 0.7 19 80–90 19 90–98 Other developing countries 2.2 2.3 4 Crop Post-Harvest: Science and Technology . agroprocessing 19 80 19 98 19 80 19 98 19 80 19 98 19 80 19 98 19 80 19 98 19 80 19 98 Industrialised 2.0 1. 5 1. 6 1. 2 3 .1 3 .1 4.9 4.8 1. 2 1. 1 34.6 26.8 countries European Union 1. 9 1. 6 1. 9 1. 5 2.8 3 .1 4.0 4.2 1. 2 1. 3. apparel 19 80 81. 5 34.2 11 .1 21. 7 11 .6 18 .5 10 .9 7.6 19 98 73.5 29.3 11 .5 26.0 3.5 26.5 11 .2 15 .3 Leather 19 80 76.7 34.6 9.9 12 .0 18 .9 23.3 15 .3 8.0 19 98 68.4 43.6 8.6 10 .3 3.4 31. 6 19 .1 12.5 Footwear. Food 19 80 85.5 28.0 14 .8 22.3 16 .3 14 .5 7.4 7 .1 19 98 80 .1 33 .1 12.9 24.4 5.5 20.0 9.4 10 .6 Beverages 19 80 79.3 32.6 10 .4 18 .6 14 .0 20.7 11 .1 9.6 19 98 72 .1 35.3 7 .1 17.9 7.9 27.9 13 .1 14.8 Tobacco