282 Notes 1. The nine localities are Jagersfontein, Fauresmith, Luckhoff, Philippolis and Ladybrand in the Free State, and Colesberg, Philipstown, Ritchie and Hopetown in the Northern Cape (see map on page xii). 2. Corvée services are the exchange of labour time on the lord’s land for the right to work a parcel of land. In South Africa, this was known as labour tenancy. 3. The use of coercion to secure a cheap labour force in the early capitalist phase of South African agriculture should not be regarded as unusual. In Canada (Lalibertz & Satzewich 1999) and California (Walsh 1999), the government resorted to the withdrawal of farm workers’ resources (in these cases, welfare payments) to force them to enter the labour market. 4. This refers to Section 10 of the Bantu Laws Amendment Act of 1952. 5. Information about the reasons for changes in employment patterns was not specifically requested. Rather, farmers volunteered their opinions in unstructured discussion. 6. It is not entirely clear whether the two earlier documents should be considered as official rural strategies in their own right. The ISRDS explicitly refutes the claim that South Africa does not have a rural strategy (DPLG 2000: 16). But the ISRDP then asserts that these earlier strategies were discussion documents and were not confirmed as the government strategy for rural development. 7. These nodal districts are Kalahari-Kgalagadi (Northern Cape/North West Province), Central Karoo (Western Cape), Ukhahalamba (Eastern Cape), Chris Hani (Eastern Cape), OR Tambo (Eastern Cape), Alfred Nzo (Eastern Cape), Ugu (southern KZN), Umzinyathi (central KZN), Zululand (northern KZN), Umkhanyakude (northern KZN), Sekhukhune (Mpumalanga/Limpopo) and Eastern Municipality (Limpopo). 8. This information comes from an interview conducted in September 2002 by Anja Benseler. 9. The work was undertaken by Prof. Retha du Plessis of the University of the Free State, and Rev. Carin van Schalkwyk of the NG Church in Bergmanshoogte, Philippolis. Their social work students carried out the project in 2003. 10. The house must have a durable and waterproof roof, glass windows that can be opened, electricity that is available in the house, water that is available on tap inside the house and a flush toilet or pit latrine. The house must be no less than 30 square metres in size. Free download from www.hsrc p ress.ac.za 283 11. A very useful analysis of the likely consequences of the minimum wage is contained in Vink and Tregurtha (2003). 12. This section draws on research conducted by Daniel Pienaar of the HSRC. The author would like to thank informants who worked with the erstwhile Rural Foundation. These include Mr Henk Vermeulen (former provincial manager of the Free State, 1988 to 1997) and Mr Alwijn Dippenaar (former chief director: operations); Ms Evelynn Oppelt, National Manager: Childcare; Ms Riana Terre’Blanche, Senior Community Development Officer: Sport, Education, Gender Issues; Mr Vikus Scholtz, chairperson of the Rural Foundation Free State Executive Council; Faan de Kok, provincial manager of the Rural Foundation in the Free State. Information was drawn from: Beeld, 30/07/91, 22/2/92; Die Burger, 4/12/87, 20/3/89, 3/8/89, 10/5/90, 15/3/91, 19/6/91, 21/9/91; 24/7/92, 2/11/92, 8/12/93, 17/12/95, 23/1/97, 7/5/98; Die Karet, 18/5/92; Die Transvaler, 28/5/90; Die Volksblad, 5/11/88, 3/6/92; Die Volksblad, Panorama, 31/5/88; Eastern Province Herald, 31/8/93; Finansies en Tegniek, 22/3/85, 28/5/87, 22/10/89, 29/2/92, 5/7/96; Hansard (A) 6 col 5572, 13/5/85, (A) 8 col 6492, 19/4/88; Landbouweekblad, 8 /6/84, 8/5/87, 22/5/87, 2/5/88, 5/8/88, 24/11/89, 18/5/90, 12/10/90, 1/9/92; Oosterlig, 31/10/89; Rapport, 5/10/87, 14/2/88, 6/10/90, 31/5/96; The Argus, 25/10/89; Weekend Argus, 17/12/95. 13. This study was conducted by Anja Benseler. The civil society organisations were identified by consulting the Department of Social Development’s register of NPOs. The HSRC sent letters to all the NPOs that appeared to provide services to farm workers. Those NPOs that responded to the letters were then interviewed telephonically. 14. Some TRCs consisted of African or coloured settlements such as Masizakhe TRC near Colesberg, or the settlements along the Orange River in the Upington region. These TRCs often voted for the ANC. Another exception is Tweespruit TRC in the eastern Free State, where a white farmer councillor joined the ANC and built up a strong ANC base in the farm worker community. 15. Platteland is an Afrikaans term for rural areas; more literally translated, it means ‘flat lands’ or ‘low lands’. 16. District Councils’ revenue base consisted of levies on commercial enterprises. These levies were based on the number of workers employed and on turnover. 17. The exceptions are farms that fall within District Management Areas (DMAs), which are administered directly by district municipalities. 18. Research for this section was conducted during 2002 by Nhlanhla Ndebele, as part of an HSRC study on rural representation on municipal councils. N O T E S Free download from www.hsrc p ress.ac.za G O I N G F O R B R O K E : T H E F AT E O F F A R M W O R K E R S I N A R I D S O U T H A F R I C A 284 19. The term micro-welfare system was introduced by Ashira Consulting in an unpublished paper. 20. No PGDS could be obtained for KwaZulu-Natal. 21. Other developmental gatekeepers are ‘shacklords’ and traditional leaders. 22. The only other notable category of single-tier municipal government contains the metropolitan municipalities, which function without being overseen by District Municipalities. 23. Research for this section was undertaken during 2002 by Monyake Motheke of the Centre for Development Support, University of the Free State. 24. For example, in 2003, the Kareeberg Local Municipality in the Northern Cape budgeted – and actually spent – a sum of R500 000 for a rural needs assessment. The municipality has made available a series of farm worker subsidies (R500 per farm worker house for water; R500 for sanitation; R1 000 for electricity) (Ingle & Van Schalkwyk 2004). The municipality has retained the services of a consultant to liaise with the Vroue Landbou Unie (VLU), to initiate literacy and needlework courses on the farms. However, it should be noted that the Kareeberg Municipality is dominated by the opposition party (the Democratic Alliance), which no doubt explains its willingness to support farming interests. 25. The Constitution refers to spheres of government rather than tiers of government. The term ‘spheres’ is intended to convey the idea that national, provincial and municipal governments are equal in importance and constitutional status. 26. Some municipalities’ IDPs are more consultant-driven than others. For some municipalities, IDPs are a formalistic requirement that languish on dusty shelves. But new participatory approaches such as community-based planning are being developed to ensure that IDPs are rooted in community needs and realistic community-level development strategies (see, for example, www.khanya-aicdd.org). 27. The 16 municipalities are listed here. North West Province: Bojanala District Municipality (Rustenburg area), Madibeng Local Municipality (Brits area), Moses Kotane Local Municipality (Madikwe area). Free State Province: Matjhabeng Local Municipality (Welkom area), Nala Local Municipality (Bothaville area), Maluti- a-Phofung Local Municipality (Harrismith area), Nketoana Local Municipality (Reitz area), Tswelopele Local Municipality (Bultfontein area), Lejweleputswa District Municipality (Welkom area). Gauteng: Ekhurhuleni Metro, Lesedi Local Municipality (Heidelberg area). Northern Cape: Frances Baard District Municipality (Kimberley area), Kgalagadi District Municipality (Kuruman area). Limpopo: Free download from www.hsrc p ress.ac.za 285 Fetakgomo Local Municipality (Ga-Mankopane area), Mogalakwena Local Municipality (Makopane area). Mpumalanga: Greater Tubatse Local Municipality (Burgersfort area), Ehlanzeni District Municipality (Nelspruit area). 28. The same caveats should apply to provincial development strategies as apply to municipal IDPs. Many of these documents were compiled or facilitated by consultants, so it is not always clear whether the relevant government departments have bought into these proposals. 29. There are, however, some glaring differences between the two situations. For example, the commercial farming lobby is inordinately powerful in the US, in contrast to the South African commercial farming sector; the US fiscus is capable of much more generous grants and subsidies; and the US farmers do not live in the shadow of land redistribution. US farmers are doubly protected – firstly, by high levels of direct subsidies and, secondly, by the fact that the US government picks up the tab for extensive farm worker services (housing, health, education etc.), which translate into indirect subsidies for US farmers. 30. AgriSETA was previously called the Primary Agriculture Education and Training Authority (PAETA). 31. Farmers were asked a totally open-ended question on their views of what training should be provided to farm workers. 32. Interview, Machiel van Niekerk, AgriSETA. 33. Interview, Nkuzi Development Association, September 2005. 34. Hans van der Merwe, AgriSA CEO, Farmers Weekly, 12 August 2005. N O T E S Free download from www.hsrc p ress.ac.za 286 References Antrobus GG (1984) South African farm wages and working conditions, with special reference to the Albany district, 1957 to 1977. PhD thesis, Rhodes University. Ardington E (1985) Black lifestyles in white agriculture. 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