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Toxic Cyanobacteria in Water:
A guide to their public health consequences,
monitoring and management
Edited by Ingrid Chorus and Jamie Bartram
E & FN Spon
An imprint of Routledge
London and New York
First published 1999 by E & FN Spon, an imprint of Routledge
11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE
© 1999 WHO
Printed and bound in Great Britain by
St Edmundsbury Press, Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any
form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented,
including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the publishers.
The publisher makes no representation, express or implied, with regard to the accuracy
of the information contained in this book and cannot accept any legal responsibility or
liability for any errors or omissions that may be made.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
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ISBN 0-419-23930-8
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Ordering information
Toxic Cyanobacteria in Water
A Guide to their Public Health Consequences, Monitoring, and Management
published on behalf of WHO by:
F & FN Spon
11 New Fetter Lane
London EC4) 4EE
Telephone: +44 171 583 9855
Fax: +44 171 843 2298
Order online: http://www.earthprint.com
Table of Contents
Foreword
Acknowledgements
Chapter 1. Introduction
1.1 Water resources
1.2 Eutrophication, cyanobacterial blooms and surface scums
1.3 Toxic cyanobacteria and other water-related health problems
1.4 Present state of knowledge
1.5 Structure and purpose of this book
1.6 References
Chapter 2. Cyanobacteria in the environment
2.1 Nature and diversity
2.2 Factors affecting bloom formation
2.3 Cyanobacterial ecostrategists
2.4 Additional information
2.5 References
Chapter 3. Cyanobacterial toxins
3.1 Classification
3.2 Occurrence of cyanotoxins
3.3 Production and regulation
3.4 Fate in the environment
3.5 Impact on aquatic biota
3.6 References
Chapter 4. Human health aspects
4.1 Human and animal poisonings
4.2 Toxicological studies
4.3 References
Chapter 5. Safe levels and safe practices
5.1 Tolerable exposures
5.2 Safe practices
5.3 Other exposure routes
5.4 Tastes and odours
5.5 References
Chapter 6. Situation assessment, planning and management
6.1 The risk-management framework
6.2 Situation assessment
6.3 Management actions, the Alert Levels Framework
6.4 Planning and response
6.5 References
Chapter 7. Implementation of management plans
7.1 Organisations, agencies and groups
7.2 Policy tools
7.3 Legislation, regulations, and standards
7.4 Awareness raising, communication and public participation
7.5 References
Chapter 8. Preventative measures
8.1 Carrying capacity
8.2 Target values for total phosphorus within water bodies
8.3 Target values for total phosphorus inputs to water bodies
8.4 Sources and reduction of external nutrient inputs
8.5 Internal measures for nutrient and cyanobacterial control
8.6 References
Chapter 9. Remedial measures
9.1 Management of abstraction
9.2 Use of algicides
9.3 Efficiency of drinking water treatment in cyanotoxin removal
9.4 Chemical oxidation and disinfection
9.5 Membrane processes and reverse osmosis
9.6 Microcystins other than microcystin-LR
9.7 Effective drinking water treatment at treatment works
9.8 Drinking water treatment for households and small community supplies
9.9 References
Chapter 10. Design of monitoring programmes
10.1 Approaches to monitoring programme development
10.2 Laboratory capacities and staff training
10.3 Reactive versus programmed monitoring strategies
10.4 Sample site selection
10.5 Monitoring frequency
10.6 References
Chapter 11. Fieldwork: site inspection and sampling
11.1 Planning for fieldwork
11.2 Site inspection
11.3 Sampling
11.4 Nutrients, cyanobacteria and toxins
11.5 On-site analysis
11.6 Field records
11.7 Sample preservation and transport
11.8 References
Chapter 12. Determination of cyanobacteria in the laboratory
12.1 Sample handling and storage
12.2 Cyanobacterial identification
12.3 Quantification
12.4 Determination of biomass using chlorophyll a analysis
12.5 Determination of nutrient concentrations
12.6 References
Chapter 13. Laboratory analysis of cyanotoxins
13.1 Sample handling and storage
13.2 Sample preparation for cyanotoxin determination and bioassays
13.3 Toxicity tests and bioassays
13.4 Analytical methods for cyanotoxins
13.5 References
Foreword
Concern about the effects of cyanobacteria on human health has grown in many
countries in recent years for a variety of reasons. These include cases of poisoning
attributed to toxic cyanobacteria and awareness of contamination of water sources
(especially lakes) resulting in increased cyanobacterial growth. Cyanobacteria also
continue to attract attention in part because of well-publicised incidents of animal
poisoning.
Outbreaks of human poisoning attributed to toxic cyanobacteria have been reported in
Australia, following exposure of individuals to contaminated drinking water, and in the
UK, where army recruits were exposed while swimming and canoeing. However, the
only known human fatalities associated with cyanobacteria and their toxins occurred in
Caruaru, Brazil, where exposure through renal dialysis led to the death of over 50
patients. Fortunately, such severe acute effects on human health appear to be rare, but
little is known of the scale and nature of either long-term effects (such as tumour
promotion and liver damage) or milder short-term effects, such as contact irritation.
Water and health, and in particular drinking water and health, has been an area of
concern to the World Health Organization (WHO) for many years. A major activity of
WHO is the development of guidelines which present an authoritative assessment of the
health risks associated with exposure to infectious agents and chemicals through water.
Such guidelines already exist for drinking water and for the safe use of wastewater and
excreta in agriculture and aquaculture, and are currently being prepared for recreational
uses of water. In co-operation with the United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization (UNESCO), United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and
the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), WHO is also involved in the long-term
monitoring of water through the GEMS/Water Programme; and in the monitoring of water
supply and sanitation services in co-operation with the United Nations Children's Fund
(UNICEF). The World Health Organization supports the development of national and
international policies concerning water and health, and assists countries in developing
capacities to establish and maintain healthy water environments, including legal
frameworks, institutional structures and human resources.
The first WHO publication dealing specifically with drinking water was published in 1958
as International Standards for Drinking-Water. Further editions were published in 1963
and 1971. The first edition of WHO's Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality was
published in 1984-1985. It comprised three volumes: Volume 1: Recommendations;
Volume 2: Health criteria and other supporting information; Volume 3: Drinking-water
quality control in small-community supplies. The primary aim of the Guidelines for
Drinking-Water Quality is the protection of public health. The guidelines provide an
assessment of the health risks associated with exposure to micro-organisms and
chemicals in drinking water. Second editions of the three volumes of the guidelines were
published in 1993, 1996 and 1997 respectively and addenda to Volumes 1 and 2 were
published in 1998.
Through ongoing review of the Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality, specific micro-
organisms and chemicals are periodically evaluated and documentation relating to
protection and control of drinking-water quality is prepared. The Working Group on
Protection and Control of Drinking-Water Quality identified cyanobacteria as one of the
most urgent areas in which guidance was required. During the development by WHO of
the Guidelines for Safe Recreational-water Environments, it also became clear that
health concerns related to cyanobacteria should be considered and were an area of
increasing public and professional interest.
This book describes the present state of knowledge regarding the impact of
cyanobacteria on health through the use of water. It considers aspects of risk
management and details the information needed for protecting drinking water sources
and recreational water bodies from the health hazards caused by cyanobacteria and
their toxins. It also outlines the state of knowledge regarding the principal considerations
in the design of programmes and studies for monitoring water resources and supplies
and describes the approaches and procedures used.
The development of this publication was guided by the recommendations of several
expert meetings concerning drinking water (Geneva, December 1995; Bad Elster, June
1996) and recreational water (Bad Elster, June 1996; St Helier, May 1997). An expert
meeting in Bad Elster, April 1997, critically reviewed the literature concerning the toxicity
of cyanotoxins and developed the scope and content of this book. A draft manuscript
was reviewed at an editorial meeting in November 1997, and a further draft was
reviewed by the working group responsible for updating the Guidelines for Drinking-
water Quality in March 1998.
Toxic Cyanobacteria in Water is one of a series of guidebooks concerning water
management issues published by E & FN Spon on behalf of WHO. Other volumes in the
series include:
Water Quality Assessments (D. Chapman, Ed., Second Edition, 1996)
Water Quality Monitoring (J. Bartram and R. Ballance, Eds, 1996)
Water Pollution Control (R. Helmer and I. Hespanhol, Eds, 1997)
It is hoped that this volume will be useful to all those concerned with cyanobacteria and
health, including environmental and public health officers and professionals in the fields
of water supply and management of water resources and recreational water. It should
also be of interest to postgraduates in these fields as well as to those involved in
freshwater ecology and special interest groups.
Acknowledgements
The World Health Organization wishes to express its appreciation to all those whose
efforts made the production of this book possible. Special thanks are due to the editors,
Dr Ingrid Chorus, German Federal Environmental Agency, Berlin, Germany, who co-
ordinated the development of the book and to Dr Jamie Bartram, Division of Operational
Support in Environmental Health, WHO, Geneva, Switzerland (formerly of the WHO
European Centre for Environment and Health, Rome, Italy), who managed the process
of preparing the manuscript.
An editorial advisory group assisted in guiding the development of this book, particularly
through co-ordination and review of specific sections. Special thanks are due to
Professor Wayne Carmichael, USA; Professor Geoffrey Codd, UK; Professor Ian
Falconer, Australia; Dr Gary Jones, Australia; Dr Tine Kuiper-Goodman, Canada; and Dr
Linda Lawton, UK, for their dedication and support.
An international group of experts provided material and, in most cases, several authors
and their collaborators contributed to each chapter. Because numerous contributions
were spread over several chapters it is difficult to identify precisely the contribution made
by each individual author and therefore the principal contributors are listed together
below:
Dr Sandra Azevedo, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (Box 4.3
and Section 5.3.1)
Dr Jamie Bartram, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland (Chapters 1 and 5-7)
Dr Lee Bowling, Department of Land and Water Conservation, Parramatta, New South
Wales, Australia (Chapter 7)
Dr Michael Burch, Cooperative Research Centre for Water Quality and Treatment,
Salisbury, South Australia, Australia (Chapters 5, 6, 9 and 10, Section 8.5.8)
Professor Wayne Carmichael, Wright State University, Dayton, Ohio, USA (Chapter 1,
Box 4.4 and Section 5.3.3)
Dr Ingrid Chorus, Institute for Water, Soil and Air Hygiene, Federal Environmental
Agency, Berlin Germany (Chapters 1, 5, 8, 10 and 12)
Professor Geoffrey Codd, University of Dundee, Dundee, Scotland (Chapters 5, 7 and
10, Section 8.5.8)
Dr Mary Drikas, Australian Water Quality Centre, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
(Chapter 9)
Professor Ian Falconer, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia (Chapters 4-7)
Dr Jutta Fastner, Institute for Water, Soil and Air Hygiene, Federal Environmental
Agency, Berlin, Germany (Chapter 11 and Figure 13.5)
Dr Jim Fitzgerald, South Australian Health Commission, Adelaide, South Australia,
Australia (Chapter 4)
Dr Ross Gregory, Water Research Centre, Swindon, Wiltshire, England (Chapter 9)
Dr Ken-Ichi Harada, Meijo University, Nagoya, Japan (Chapter 13)
Dr Steve Hrudey, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada (Chapter 9)
Dr Gary Jones, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (Land
and Water), Indooroopilly, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia (Chapters 1, 3, 6 and 7,
Figure 5.1, Table 5.2, Box 8.3)
Dr Fumio Kondo, Aichi Prefectural Institute of Public Health, Nagoya, Japan (Chapter 13)
Dr Tine Kuiper-Goodman, Health Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada (Chapters 4 and 5,
Box 6.1)
Dr Linda Lawton, Robert Gordon University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, Scotland (Chapters
12 and 13)
Dr Blahoslav Marsalek, Institute of Botany, Brno, Czech Republic (Sections 3.5.1 and
3.5.4, Chapter 12)
Dr Luuc Mur, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands (Chapters 2 and 8)
Dr Judit Padisák, Institute of Biology, University of Veszprém, Veszprém, Hungary
(Chapter 12)
Dr Kaarina Sivonen, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland (Chapter 3)
Dr Olav Skulberg, Norwegian Institute for Water Research, Oslo, Norway (Chapters 1
and 2, Figures 2.1 and 12.1, Box 7.5)
Dr Hans Utkilen, National Institute for Public Health, Oslo, Norway (Section 5.4, Chapter
11, Figure 13.2)
Dr Jessica Vapnek, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome,
Italy (Chapter 7)
Dr Yu Shun-Zhang, Institute of Public Health, Shanghai, China (Box 5.2)
Acknowledgements are also due to the following contributors: Dr Rainer Enderlein,
United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UN ECE), Geneva, Switzerland (Box
7.4); Dr Michelle Giddings, Health Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada (Box 6.1); Dr Nina
Gjølme, National Institute for Public Health, Oslo, Norway (Figures 2.3-2.5); Dr Rita
[...]... of the human health significance of cyanobacteria and individual cyanotoxins, and into practical means for assessing and controlling exposure to cyanobacteria and to cyanotoxins, is a priority A major gap also lies in the synthesis and dissemination of the available information Information concerning the efficiency of cyanotoxin removal in drinking water treatment systems is limited Especially, simple,... England Thanks are also due to Dr Deborah Chapman, the series editor, for editorial assistance, layout and production management, and to Ms Grazia Motturi and Ms Sylvaine Bassi, for secretarial and administrative assistance We are also grateful to Alan Steel for preparation of illustrations, to A Willcocks and L Willcocks for typesetting assistance and to Stephanie Dagg for preparation of the index... Toxic Cyanobacteria in Water: A guide to their public health consequences, monitoring and management Edited by Ingrid Chorus and Jamie Bartram © 1999 WHO ISBN 0-419-23930-8 Chapter 2 CYANOBACTERIA IN THE ENVIRONMENT This chapter was prepared by Luuc R Mur, Olav M Skulberg and Hans Utkilen For management of cyanobacterial hazards to human health, a basic understanding of the properties, the behaviour in. .. of algal and cyanobacterial communities is, for example, diatoms in association with rapidly growing small flagellates in winter and spring, followed by green algae in late spring and early summer, and then by species which cannot easily be eaten by zooplankton, such as dinoflagellates, desmids and large yellow-green algae (in moderately turbulent waters also diatoms) in late summer and autumn In eutrophic... provide a basis for the evaluation of status and trends for management and they facilitate international information exchange and comparison 1.3 Toxic cyanobacteria and other water-related health problems The contamination of water resources and drinking water supplies by human excreta remains a major human health concern, just as it has been for centuries By contrast, the importance of toxic substances,... tear loose and float to the surface Cyanobacteria have an impressive ability to colonise infertile substrates such as volcanic ash, desert sand and rocks (Jaag, 1945; Dor and Danin, 1996) They are extraordinary excavators, boring hollows into limestone and special types of sandstone (Weber et al., 1996) Another remarkable feature is their ability to survive extremely high and low temperatures Cyanobacteria. .. unpleasant (Jüttner, 1987) or toxic (Gorham and Carmichael, 1988) The water quality problems caused by dense populations of cyanobacteria are intricate, many and various (Skulberg, 1996b) and can have great health and economic impacts As a consequence, the negative aspects of cyanobacteria have gained research attention and public concern The properties that make the cyanobacteria generally undesirable are... 1932), and onwards to their treatment in modem textbooks (Anagnostidis and Komárek, 1985; Staley et al., 1989), the amazing combination of properties found in algae and bacteria which these organisms exhibit, have been a source of fascination and attraction for many scientists The cyanobacteria also provide an extraordinarily wide-ranging contribution to human affairs in everyday life (Tiffany, 1958) and. .. Cyanobacteria are inhabitants of hot springs (Castenholz, 1973), mountain streams (Kann, 1988), Arctic and Antarctic lakes (Skulberg, 199 6a) and snow and ice (Kol, 1968; Laamanen, 1996) The cyanobacteria also include species that run through the entire range of water types, from polysaprobic zones to katharobic waters (Van Landingham, 1982) Cyanobacteria also form symbiotic associations with animals and plants... Problems associated with cyanobacteria are likely to increase in areas experiencing population growth with a lack of concomitant sewage treatment and in regions with agricultural practices causing nutrient losses to water bodies through over-fertilisation and erosion There are important differences in algal and cyanobacterial growth between tropical and temperate areas A characteristic pattern of seasonal . Toxic Cyanobacteria in Water:
A guide to their public health consequences,
monitoring and management
Edited by Ingrid Chorus and Jamie Bartram. national and
international policies concerning water and health, and assists countries in developing
capacities to establish and maintain healthy water
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Xem thêm: Toxic Cyanobacteria in Water: A guide to their public health consequences, monitoring and management pot, Toxic Cyanobacteria in Water: A guide to their public health consequences, monitoring and management pot, 2 Eutrophication, cyanobacterial blooms and surface scums, Chapter 2. Cyanobacteria in the environment, Chapter 5. Safe levels and safe practices, Chapter 6. Situation assessment, planning and management, 3 Management actions, the Alert Levels Framework, 1 Organisations, agencies and groups, 3 Legislation, regulations, and standards, 4 Awareness raising, communication and public participation, Chapter 10. Design of monitoring programmes, Chapter 11. Fieldwork: site inspection and sampling, 4 Nutrients, cyanobacteria and toxins, Chapter 12. Determination of cyanobacteria in the laboratory, Chapter 13. Laboratory analysis of cyanotoxins