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Front Matter Edited by James G Brennan and Alistair S Grandison Food Processing Handbook Volume 1 Related Titles Rychlik, Michael (ed ) Fortified Foods with Vitamins Analytical Concepts to Assure Bett.Front Matter Edited by James G Brennan and Alistair S Grandison Food Processing Handbook Volume 1 Related Titles Rychlik, Michael (ed ) Fortified Foods with Vitamins Analytical Concepts to Assure Bett.Front Matter Edited by James G Brennan and Alistair S Grandison Food Processing Handbook Volume 1 Related Titles Rychlik, Michael (ed ) Fortified Foods with Vitamins Analytical Concepts to Assure Bett.Front Matter Edited by James G Brennan and Alistair S Grandison Food Processing Handbook Volume 1 Related Titles Rychlik, Michael (ed ) Fortified Foods with Vitamins Analytical Concepts to Assure Bett.
Edited by James G Brennan and Alistair S Grandison Food Processing Handbook Volume Related Titles Rychlik, Michael (ed.) Eßlinger, Hans Michael (ed.) Fortified Foods with Vitamins Handbook of Brewing Analytical Concepts to Assure Better and Safer Products Processes, Technology, Markets 2011 ISBN: 978-3-527-33078-2 Moscicki, Leszek (ed.) Extrusion-Cooking Techniques 2009 ISBN: 978-3-527-31674-8 Chen, X D., Mujumdar, A S (eds.) Drying Technologies in Food Processing Applications, Theory and Sustainability 2011 ISBN: 978-1-4051-5763-6 ISBN: 978-3-527-32888-8 Evans, J (ed.) Peinemann, K.-V., Pereira Nunes, S., Giorno, L (eds.) Frozen Food Science and Technology Membrane Technology Volume 3: Membranes for Food Applications ISBN: 978-1-4051-5478-9 2010 Heredia, N L., Wesley, I V (eds.) ISBN: 978-3-527-31482-9 Microbiologically Safe Foods Rijk, R., Veraart, R (eds.) 2009 Global Legislation for Food Packaging Materials ISBN: 978-0-470-05333-1 2010 ISBN: 978-3-527-31912-1 Stanga, Mario Sanitation Stadler, Richard H., Lineback, David R Process-Induced Food Toxicants Occurrence, Formation, Mitigation, and Health Risks 2009 ISBN: 978-0-470-07475-6 Cleaning and Disinfection in the Food Industry 2010 Ziegler, H (ed.) ISBN: 978-3-527-32685-3 Flavourings Popping, Bert, Diaz-Amigo, Carmen, Hoenicke, Katrin (eds.) Production, Composition, Applications, Regulations Molecular Biological and Immunological Techniques and Applications for Food Chemists 2010 ISBN: 978-0-470-06809-0 Wintgens, J N (ed.) Coffee: Growing, Processing, Sustainable Production 2nd updated edition 2009 ISBN: 978-3-527-32286-2 2007 ISBN: 978-3-527-31406-5 Heller, K J (ed.) Genetically Engineered Food Methods and Detection 2006 ISBN: 978-3-527-31393-8 Edited by James G Brennan and Alistair S Grandison Food Processing Handbook 2nd edition Volume The Editors James G Brennan, MSc FIFST 16 Benning Way Wokingham, Berks RG40 1XX United Kingdom Dr Alistair S Grandison Department of Food and Nutritional Sciences University of Reading Whiteknights Reading RG6 6AP United Kingdom All books published by Wiley-VCH are carefully produced Nevertheless, authors, editors, and publisher not warrant the information contained in these books, including this book, to be free of errors Readers are advised to keep in mind that statements, data, illustrations, procedural details or other items may inadvertently be inaccurate Library of Congress Card No.: applied for British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at © 2012 Wiley-VCH Verlag & Co KGaA, Boschstr 12, 69469 Weinheim, Germany All rights reserved (including those of translation into other languages) No part of this book may be reproduced in any form – by photoprinting, microfilm, or any other means – nor transmitted or translated into a machine language without written permission from the publishers Registered names, trademarks, etc used in this book, even when not specifically marked as such, are not to be considered unprotected by law Cover Design Adam-Design, Weinheim Typesetting Laserwords Private Limited, Chennai, India Printing and Binding Fabulous Printers Pte Ltd, Singapore Printed in Singapore Printed on acid-free paper ISBN: 978-3-527-32468-2 ePDF ISBN: 978-3-527-63438-5 ePub ISBN: 978-3-527-63437-8 Mobi ISBN: 978-3-527-63439-2 oBook ISBN: 978-3-527-63436-1 V Contents Preface to the Second Edition XV Preface to the First Edition XVII List of Contributors XIX Content of Volume 1 1.1 1.2 1.2.1 1.2.1.1 1.2.1.2 1.2.1.3 1.2.1.4 1.2.1.5 1.2.2 1.2.3 1.2.4 1.2.5 1.3 1.3.1 1.3.1.1 1.3.1.2 1.3.1.3 1.3.1.4 1.3.2 1.4 1.4.1 1.4.2 1.4.3 1.5 Postharvest Handling and Preparation of Foods for Processing Alistair S Grandison Introduction Properties of Raw Food Materials and Their Susceptibility to Deterioration and Damage Raw Material Properties Geometric Properties Color Texture Flavor Functional Properties Raw Material Specifications Deterioration of Raw Materials Damage to Raw Materials Improving Processing Characteristics through Selective Breeding and Genetic Engineering Storage and Transportation of Raw Materials Storage Temperature 10 Humidity 11 Composition of Atmosphere 12 Other Considerations 12 Transportation 13 Raw Material Cleaning 13 Dry Cleaning Methods 14 Wet Cleaning Methods 17 Peeling 20 Sorting and Grading 20 VI Contents 1.5.1 1.5.2 1.6 1.6.1 1.6.2 1.6.3 1.7 Criteria and Methods of Sorting 20 Grading 23 Blanching 25 Mechanisms and Purposes of Blanching Processing Conditions 27 Blanching Equipment 27 Sulfiting of Fruits and Vegetables 28 References 29 Thermal Processing 31 Michael J Lewis and Soojin Jun Introduction 31 Reasons for Heating Foods 32 Safety and Quality Issues 33 Product Range 34 Reaction Kinetics 35 Microbial Inactivation 35 Heat Resistance at Constant Temperature 35 Temperature Dependence 37 Batch and Continuous Processing 39 Continuous Heat Exchangers 42 Direct Heating 44 Heat Processing Methods 46 Thermization 46 Pasteurization 47 HTST Pasteurization 48 Tunnel (Spray) Pasteurizers 51 Extended Shelf Life Products 52 Sterilization 52 In-Container Processing 52 UHT Processing 60 Special Problems with Viscous and Particulate Products 65 Ohmic Heating 67 Introduction 67 Fundamental Principles of Ohmic Heating 67 Electrochemical Reaction on Electrodes 68 Heating Pattern of Multiphase Food in Ohmic System 69 Modeling of Ohmic Heating 70 Filling Procedures 72 Storage 72 References 73 2.1 2.1.1 2.1.2 2.1.3 2.2 2.2.1 2.2.2 2.3 2.3.1 2.3.2 2.3.2.1 2.4 2.4.1 2.4.2 2.4.2.1 2.4.2.2 2.4.2.3 2.4.3 2.4.3.1 2.4.3.2 2.5 2.6 2.6.1 2.6.2 2.6.2.1 2.6.2.2 2.6.2.3 2.7 2.8 3.1 3.1.1 25 Evaporation and Dehydration 77 James G Brennan Evaporation (Concentration, Condensing) 77 General Principles 77 Contents 3.1.2 3.1.2.1 3.1.2.2 3.1.2.3 3.1.2.4 3.1.2.5 3.1.2.6 3.1.2.7 3.1.2.8 3.1.3 3.1.4 3.1.5 3.1.5.1 3.1.5.2 3.1.5.3 3.2 3.2.1 3.2.2 3.2.3 3.2.3.1 3.2.3.2 3.2.3.3 3.2.3.4 3.2.3.5 3.2.3.6 3.2.3.7 3.2.4 3.2.5 3.2.5.1 3.2.5.2 3.2.6 3.2.7 3.2.7.1 3.2.7.2 3.2.7.3 3.2.7.4 3.2.8 3.2.9 3.2.10 3.2.11 3.2.12 3.2.13 Equipment Used in Vacuum Evaporation 79 Vacuum Pans 79 Short Tube Vacuum Evaporators 80 Long-Tube Evaporators 81 Plate Evaporators 82 Agitated Thin-Film Evaporators 83 Centrifugal Evaporators 83 Refractance Window Evaporator 83 Ancillary Equipment 84 Multiple-Effect Evaporation 84 Vapor Recompression 85 Applications for Evaporation 86 Concentrated Liquid Products 86 Evaporation as a Preparatory Step to Further Processing 88 The Use of Evaporation to Reduce Transport, Storage, and Packaging Costs 89 Dehydration (Drying) 91 General Principles 91 Drying Solid Foods in Heated Air 92 Equipment Used in Hot Air Drying of Solid Food Pieces 94 Cabinet (Tray) Dryer 94 Tunnel Dryer 94 Conveyor (Belt) Dryer 95 Bin Dryer 95 Fluidized Bed Dryer 96 Pneumatic (Flash) Dryer 98 Rotary Dryer 99 Drying of Solid Foods by Direct Contact with a Heated Surface 99 Equipment Used in Drying Solid Foods by Contact with a Heated Surface 100 Vacuum Cabinet (Tray or Shelf) Dryer 100 Double Cone Vacuum Dryer 100 Freeze Drying (Sublimation Drying, Lyophilization) of Solid Foods 101 Equipment Used in Freeze Drying Solid Foods 102 Cabinet (Batch) Freeze Dryer 102 Tunnel (Semi-continuous) Freeze Dryer 103 Continuous-Freeze Dryers 104 Vacuum Spray Freeze Dryer 104 Drying by the Application of Radiant (Infrared) Heat 105 Drying by the Application of Dielectric Energy 105 Electrohydrodynamic Drying (EHD) 107 Osmotic Dehydration 108 Sun and Solar Drying 110 Drying Food Liquids and Slurries in Heated Air 111 VII VIII Contents 3.2.13.1 3.2.14 3.2.14.1 3.2.14.2 3.2.14.3 3.2.15 3.2.16 3.2.16.1 3.2.16.2 3.2.16.3 3.2.16.4 3.2.16.5 3.2.16.6 3.2.17 4.1 4.2 4.2.1 4.2.2 4.2.3 4.2.4 4.3 4.3.1 4.3.1.1 4.3.1.2 4.3.2 4.3.2.1 4.3.2.2 4.3.2.3 4.3.2.4 4.3.2.5 4.3.3 4.3.3.1 4.3.3.2 4.3.3.3 4.3.3.4 4.3.3.5 4.4 4.4.1 4.4.2 Spray Drying 111 Drying Liquids and Slurries by Direct Contact With a Heated Surface 116 Drum (Roller, Film) Dryer 116 Vacuum Band (Belt) Dryer 117 Refractance Window Drying System 118 Other Methods Used for Drying Liquids and Slurries 118 Applications of Dehydration 119 Dehydrated Vegetable Products 119 Dehydrated Fruit Products 121 Dehydrated Dairy Products 122 Instant Coffee and Tea 123 Dehydrated Meat Products 123 Dehydrated Fish Products 123 Stability of Dehydrated Foods 124 References 126 Freezing 131 Jos´e Mauricio Pardo and Keshavan Niranjan Introduction 131 Refrigeration Methods and Equipment 131 Plate Contact Systems 132 Gas Contact Refrigerators 132 Immersion and Liquid Contact Refrigeration 133 Cryogenic Freezing 134 Low Temperature Production 135 Mechanical Refrigeration Cycle 135 The Pressure and Enthalpy Diagram 137 The Real Refrigeration Cycle (Standard Vapor Compression Cycle) 138 Equipment for a Mechanical Refrigeration System 139 Evaporators 139 Condensers 140 Compressors 141 Expansion Valves 142 Refrigerants 142 Common Terms Used in Refrigeration System Design 143 Cooling Load 144 Coefficient of Performance 144 Refrigerant Flow Rate 144 Work Done by the Compressor 145 Heat Exchanged in the Condenser and Evaporator 145 Freezing Kinetics 145 Formation of the Microstructure during Solidification 146 Mathematical Models for Freezing Kinetics 147 Contents 4.4.2.1 4.4.2.2 4.4.2.3 4.4.2.4 4.5 Neumann’s Model 148 Plank’s Model 148 Cleland’s Model 149 Pham’s Model 149 Effects of Refrigeration on Food Quality 150 References 151 Irradiation 153 Alistair S Grandison Introduction 153 Principles of Irradiation 153 Physical Effects 154 Chemical Effects 158 Biological Effects 158 Equipment 160 Isotope Sources 160 Machine Sources 162 Control and Dosimetry 162 Safety Aspects 165 Effects on the Properties of Food 165 Detection Methods for Irradiated Foods 167 Applications and Potential Applications 168 General Effects and Mechanisms of Irradiation 169 Inactivation of Microorganisms 169 Inhibition of Sprouting 170 Delay of Ripening and Senescence 171 Insect Disinfestation 171 Elimination of Parasites 171 Miscellaneous Effects on Food Properties and Processing 172 Combination Treatments 172 Applications to Particular Food Classes 172 Meat and Meat Products 172 Fish and Shellfish 173 Fruits and Vegetables 174 Bulbs and Tubers 174 Spices and Herbs 175 Cereals and Cereal Products 175 Other Miscellaneous Foods 175 References 176 5.1 5.2 5.2.1 5.2.2 5.2.3 5.3 5.3.1 5.3.2 5.3.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.7.1 5.7.1.1 5.7.1.2 5.7.1.3 5.7.1.4 5.7.1.5 5.7.1.6 5.7.1.7 5.7.2 5.7.2.1 5.7.2.2 5.7.2.3 5.7.2.4 5.7.2.5 5.7.2.6 5.7.2.7 6.1 6.2 6.2.1 6.2.2 High Pressure Processing 179 Margaret F Patterson, Dave A Ledward, Craig Leadley, and Nigel Rogers Introduction 179 Effect of High Pressure on Microorganisms 182 Bacterial Spores 182 Vegetative Bacteria 183 IX Index High-pressure shift freezing (HPSF) methods 133 High-temperature short-time (HTST) 43 – pasteurization 48–51 High-temperature, short-time (HTST) principle 89 Hindered amine light (HAL) 271 Histograms 659–665 Homogenization 65 Homogenizers – hydroshear 378 – membrane 379–380 – ultrasonic 380 Hop extract 311 Horizontal plate filter 288 Hot water rinse and brushing (HWRB) treatment 19 Human health, deep-fat fried food effect on 461–465 Hurdle technology 206 Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) 579 Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) 143, 578 Hydrogen sulfide indicators 274 Hydrophilic–lipophilic balance (HLB) 686 Hydrophilic materials 374 Hydrophobic materials 374 Hydroshear homogenizers 378 4-hydroxy-2-trans-hexenal (HHE) 463 4-hydroxy-2-trans-octenal (HOE) 463 Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) 473, 686 Hygienic design of food processing plant 533–557 – consumer trends 534 – engineering factors influencing 534–536 – equipment definitions 544 – equipment design 535–544 – – cleanability 537, 542–543 – – dimensional stability 537 – – factory environment 536 – – geometry and fabrication 539–542 – – installation and layout 535 – – jacketed vessel 541 – – lubrication 538 – – materials of construction 536–539 – – mechanical stresses 538 – – positive pump installation 541 – – process design 535 – – process operation and control 535 – – rubber elastomers 538 – – stagnant zones 539 – – storage and distribution 536 – future trends 556–557 – industry trends 534 – limitations of design principles 543–544 – process design 545–551 – – continuous sterilization process 545 – – frozen food 546–551 – process operation and control 551–556 – – automation 551 – – chemical disinfection 554 – – disinfection 554 – – fouling process 555–556 – – peracetic acid (PAA) 551 – – sensor inaccuracies effect on 553 – – sterilization 554 Hyper-spectral imaging systems 668 Hypertonic solution 108 i Image analysis 677–689 – applications of 678–689 – classification 679 – feature extraction 678–679 – image acquisition 678 – image preprocessing 678 – image segmentation 678 – image texture 679 Imbibition 403 Immersion frying, See Deep-fat frying Immersion refrigeration 133–134 Immiscible liquids 283 – separation 294–296 Impact (percussion) mills 392–395 – beater bar mill 393 – breaker plate 392 – choke feeding 393 – comminuting mill 393 – fluid energy (jet) mill 394–395 – Hammer mill 392 – pin (pin-disk) mill 394 Impulse sealers 244 Incipient velocity 96 Incompressible cake 284 In-container processing 52–60 – blanching 57 – container, types of 56 – exhausting 58 – filling 58 – preliminary operations 56 – quality assurance 60 – sealing 58 – supply of raw materials 56 Industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM) bands 105 Inflation 633 Ingredient functionality, high pressure effect on 188–189 763 764 Index Injection molding 248 In-package microflora 231 Insect disinfestation 171 Insect infestation, packaging and 231–232 Insoluble solids separation from liquids 296–297 Instant coffee 88 Institute of Food Science and Technology 498 Integrated pollution prevention and control (IPPC) 582 Intelligent packaging 272–276 – consumer attitudes 275–276 – legal aspects of 275–276 – quality indicators and sensors 273 – – carbon dioxide indicators 274 – – chemical indicators 273 – – gas concentration indicators 273–274 – – hydrogen sulfide indicators 274 – – microbial indicators 273 – – oxygen indicators 274 – safety aspects 275–276 – time–temperature indicators (TTIs) 272 Intensity image 678 Intermeshing co-rotating extruders 434 Intermeshing counter-rotating machines 434 Intermeshing twin-screw extruders 434 Internal rate of return (IRR) 629, 634 International Commission on Microbiological Specifications of Foods (ICMSF) 495 International/Private standards, traceability and 518 Ion exchange 348–356 – anion exchangers 348–351 – applications of 352–356 – – decolorization 354–355 – – demineralization 353–354 – – protein purification 355–356 – – softening 353–354 – cation exchangers 348–351 – counterions 349 – equipment 350–352 – principles 348–350 Ionizing radiations 153 Irradiation 153–176 – applications 168–176 – – to bulbs and tubers 174–175 – – to cereals and cereal products 175 – – to fish and shellfish 173 – – to fruits and vegetables 174 – – to meat and meat products 172–173 – – to spices and herbs 175 – biological effects 158–160 – chemical effects 158 – detection methods for irradiated foods 167–168 – – electron spin resonance (ESR) 167 – – luminescence techniques 167 – – photostimulated luminescence (PSL) 167 – – thermoluminescence (TL) 167 – effects on properties of food 165–166 – equipment 160–164 – gamma (γ ) rays 153–159 – general effects 169–172 – high-energy electron beams (β particles) 153–159 – isotope sources 160–162 – lethal doses of 159–160 – mechanisms of 169–172 – – combination treatments 172 – – inactivation of microorganisms 169–170 – – inhibition of sprouting 170–171 – – insect disinfestation 171 – – parasites elimination 171 – – radappertization 170 – – radicidation 170 – – radurization 170 – – ripening delay 171 – – senescence delay 171 – physical effects 154–157 – purposes 169 – radura symbol 168 – safety aspects 165 – X-rays 153–159 ISO 22000 standard 518 ISO 22005: 2007 518 ISO 9000 series 518 Isoelectric point (IEP) 348 Isotope sources, for radiation 160–162 – Cesium-137 160 – Cobalt-60 160 – control and dosimetry 162–164 – machine sources 162 j Jet or spray condensers 84 k Kefir 740 Kick’s law 389 Kinetics of freezing, See Freezing kinetics Kneaders 369 Kraft paper for packaging 234 Index l Lacquer (enamel) 250 Lactase 749 Lactobacillus delbruecki 738–740 Lactobacillus helveticus 738–740 Lactococcus lactis 738–740 β-Lactoglobulin 192–194 Lactose remover 271 Ladder logic 567 Laminates, packaging in 245–247 Laplace’s equation 71 Leaching 302–311, See also Solid–liquid extraction Leader’s Handbook, The 651 Leaky waveguide applicator 107 Lean 650–652 Legislation and traceability 516–518 Lethality values 54 Life cycle assessment (LCA) 582 Light microscopy (LM) 673 Light, in packaging 229 Light stereomicroscopy (LS) 686 Limiting resistance 41 Linear HACCP system 503 Linear (1D) bar code 521 Lipase 749 Lipid-based delivery systems 704–705 Liposomes 700–701 Lipoxygenase 190 Liquid contact refrigeration 133–134 Liquid–liquid centrifugal separators 297–298 Liquid–solid separations 282–283 Location plot 660–661 Longitudinal waves 215 Long-tube evaporators 81–82 Louvered dryer 99 Low-intensity ultrasound (LIU) 216–217 Low temperature exchanger or evaporator 137 Low temperature production 135–145 Low wines 317 Low wines still 317 Lower natural process limit (LNPL) 643 Luminescence techniques 167 m Macrosol™ 703 ‘Magma’ 324 Magnetic cleaning 15 Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) 675–677 Maize, size reduction in 400 Malolactic fermentation 737 460, Manufacturing execution systems (MESs) 566, 568–569 Mashing 736 Mass transfer coefficient 305 Mass transfer during deep-fat frying 456–458 Meats, fermented 741–742 Mechanical compression 141 Mechanical damage, in packaging 226 Mechanical pulp for packaging 233 Mechanical refrigeration cycle 135–139 Mechanical refrigeration system, equipment for 139–143 Mechanical vapor recompression (MVR) 86 Medical stage 47 Membrane homogenizers 379–380 Membrane processing 331–348, See also Microfiltration; Reverse osmosis (RO); Ultrafiltration – batch process 339 – concentration polarization 335–336 – continuous process 339 – membrane characteristics 334 – membrane configuration 337–340 – – flat-plate 337 – – hollow fiber 337–338 – – module 337 – – spiral-wound 337 – – tubular membranes 337 – membrane equipment 336–337 – microfiltration 333 – nanofiltration 333 – nanofiltration, applications for 342–343 – particle filtration and 332 – permeation rate 334–335 – power consumption 334 – rejection or retention factor (r) 333 – safety and hygiene considerations 340–341 – terminology 331–334 – – concentrate or retentate 331 – – permeate (filtrate) 331 – – reverse osmosis 331 – transport phenomena 335–336 Metafilter Pack filter pile 289 Metal materials and containers, in packaging 248–255 – aluminum alloy 252 – aluminum foil 248 – cylindrical cans 254 – drawn can 253 – drawn and redrawn can 253 – drawn and wall-ironed can 253 765 766 Index Metal materials and containers, in packaging (contd.) – image analysis for 677–689, See also individual entry – levels of 669–672 – electrolytic chromium-coated steel (ECCS) – microscopy techniques for 672–677, See 250–252 also individual entry – rectangular containers 254 – nanostructure 669–672 – three-piece can 252 – structure–property–function relationships – tinplate 248 670–672 Metallized films 243 Microstructure formation during solidification Methane (CH4 ) 580 146–147 Methylcellulose (MC) 473 Microwave blanching 28 Micelles 699–700 Microwave susceptors 272 Michaelis–Menten equation 743 Microwave-induced pyrolysis 577 Microbial contamination, packaging and Miers’ theory 324 230–231 Milk processing 341–342 Microbial inactivation 35 Milk protein concentrates (MPC) 343 Microbiological quality of foods, high Minerals 446–447 pressure effect on 187 Minimum botulinum cook 53 Microemulsions 374, 703 Mixing 363–403, See also Emulsification – based antioxidant activity 711 – applications 373 Microencapsulation 697 – – gases into liquids 373 Microfiltration 333, 346–348 – – low-viscosity liquids 373 – ‘Bactocatch’ system 347 – – particulate solids 373 – cross-flow microfiltration (CMF) 347 – continuous mixers for pastelike materials Microfluidizers 378–379 369–370 Micronization 105 – of dry, particulate solids 370–372 Microorganisms – – fluidized bed mixers 371 – high pressure effect on 182–187 – – horizontal screw 371 – PEF effects on 208–212 – – ribbon mixers 371 – – conductivity 21 – – tumbling mixers 371–372 – – food factors 210–212 – – vertical screw mixers 371 – – lethality 211 of gases and liquids 372–373 – – microorganism factors 210, 212 of high-viscosity liquids, pastes, and plastic – – processing factors 209–210, 212 solids 367–370 – – product factors 212 kneaders (dispersers, masticators) 369 – ultrasound power effect on 218 of low- and moderate-viscosity liquids Microscopy techniques 672–677 363–367 – applications of 678–689 – – baffled 364 – atomic force microscopy (AFM) 675 – – no vortex 364 – confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) – – unbaffled 364 673–674 – – vortex formed 364 – conventional SEM 674 – paddle mixer 364–365, 367–369 – electron microscopy 674–675 – pan (bowl, can) mixers 368–369 – environmental SEM 674 – propeller mixer 365–367 – light microscopy (LM) 673 – sonic mixer 373 – magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) – static inline mixers 370 675–677 – turbine mixer 365 – microscopes used in 676 Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) 227, – transmission electron microscopes (TEMs) 258–261 668 – bakery products and snack foods 261 – X-ray microscopy 677 – cheese 261 Microstructural changes during deep-fat – fish 259 frying 459–461 – fruits and vegetables 259 Microstructure evaluation 667–689 – gas compositions used in 260 Index – meat products 259 – pasta 261 Modular HACCP system 503 Moisture absorbers 265, 269 – carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) 269 Molded pulp for packaging 236 Molds, high pressure effect on 183–184 Monomolecular value 124–125 Montmorillonite 713 Montreal Protocol 579 Moore’s law 694 Multiple-effect evaporation 84–85 Multiple emulsions 374 Multistage moving bed extractors 307–308 Multistage static bed extractors 305–307 Municipal solid waste (MSW) 575 n Nanocomposite 713 Nanoemulsions 701–702 Nanofiltration 599 – applications for 333, 342–343 Nano-sized self-assembled structured liquids (NSSLs) 707 Nanotechnology 693–722 – biomedical drivers 695 – bottom-up approach 696 – delivery systems for functional food ingredients 697–712 – – classification of delivery vehicles 699 – – controlled release 698 – – emulsions 701–702 – – ideal delivery system 698 – – lipid-based systems 699–705 – – liposomes 700–701 – – micelles 699–700 – – microemulsion-based antioxidant activity 711 – – microemulsions 703 – – nanoemulsions 701–702 – – natural antimicrobial agents, delivery of 709–710 – – non-lipid-based delivery systems 705 – – novel oil-phase nanoparticles 703–704 – – nutraceuticals 706–708 – – nutritional supplements 706–708 – – phase behavior dependence on molecular geometry 700 – – polyunsaturated oils, antioxidant protection of 710–712 – – reverse micelles 699–700 – – stabilization 698 – – targeting 698 – – – – – – vitamin C nanoparticles 711 driving force for 694–695 electronics drivers 694–695 and food 696–697 in food packaging and other contact surfaces 712–716 – – ‘active’ nanoparticulates, incorporation of 714–716 – – improvement of materials properties of packaging 713–714 – – ‘Smart’ packaging 715–716 – health and safety concerns 717–719 – manufacture of, principles 695–696 – recent initiatives 721–722 – regulatory aspects 719–721 – top-down approach 695 National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI) 721 Natural antimicrobial agents, delivery of 709–710 Natural circulation evaporator 81 Natural process behavior charts 662–665 Natural process limits 644 Natural process run chart (NPRC) 638, 642 Net present value (NPV) 632–633 Neumann’s model 148 Neutral zone 295 Niacin 445 Nitrocellulose 239 Nitrous oxide (N2 O) 580 Noninvasive X-ray tomography 460 Non-lipid-based delivery systems 705 Non-value-added activities 652–654 Normalizing 402 No-time dough making 412 Novel oil-phase nanoparticles 703–704 Nozzle-discharge centrifuge 299 Nutraceuticals 706–708 Nutritional supplements 706–708 Nylons 241 o Ohmic heating 67–72 – electrochemical reaction on electrodes 68–69 – filling procedures 72 – fundamental principles of 67–72 – heating pattern of multiphase food in 69 – modeling of 70–72 – storage 72–73 Oil absorption in deep-fat fried food 465–474, See also under Deep-fat frying Oil degradation 463–465 767 768 Index Oil-in-water emulsions 382–384 – cake products 384 – coffee/tea whiteners 383 – cream liqueurs 382 – ice cream mix 382 – meat products 383 – milk 382 – salad dressings 383 Oil-in-water-in-oil (o/w/o) 702 Olean 463 Olive oil 462 – extra-virgin 462 – refined solvent-extracted 462 – virgin olive oils 462 On/off (two position) controller 562–563 ‘One step back’/‘one step forward’ approach 516 Onion stills 315 Organoleptic considerations, in high pressure treatment 195 Orientation 238 Oriented polypropylene (OPP) 241 Osmotic concentration 108 Osmotic dehydration 108–109, 473 Out of the Crisis 651 Ovalbumin 193 Oven spring 420 Overall equipment effectiveness (OEE) factors 636–638 – availability 637 – performance 637 – quality 637 – Six Big Losses 635, 638 Overall heat transfer coefficient (OHTC) 40 Oxygen indicators 274 Oxygen scavengers 264–267 – carbon dioxide scavengers/emitters 265 – ethanol emitters 265 – ethylene scavengers 265 – flavor/odor adsorbers 265 – moisture absorbers 265 – nonmetallic 264 – preservative releasers 265 Ozone 602 – ozone-depleting potential (ODP) 579 Ozonization 219 p Packaging 225–276, See also Active packaging; Glass and glass containers; Intelligent packaging; Metal materials and – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – containers; Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) aseptic packaging 261–263 ‘boil in the bag’ packages 241–242 cartons 235 cast polypropylene 240 cellulose acetate 239 chemical pulp 233 composite containers 236 considerations 497 corrugated fiberboard 236 ethylene-vinyl acetate copolymers 243 European Commission specifications 229–230 fiberboards 236 fiberboards for 233–236 flexible films 237–243, 245–247 flexible laminates 243–244 form–fill–seal system 245 groundwood pulp 233 heat-sealing equipment 244–245 in-package microflora 231 material and/or container for, factors affecting 226–233 – chemical compatibility and contents of package 229–230 – greaseproofness 228 – light 229 – mechanical damage 226 – permeability characteristics 226–228 – shelf life 227 – temperature 228 materials and containers for 233–258 materials used,recycling 576–578, See also Recycling, packaging materials mechanical pulp 233 metallized films 243 minimization 575–576 molded pulp 236 paperboards for 233–236 – chipboard 235 – duplex board 235 – solid white board 235 papers for 233–236 – glassine paper 234 – greaseproof paper 234 – kraft paper 234 – sulfite paper 234 – tissue paper 234 – vegetable parchment 234 – wax-coated papers 235 – wet-strength papers 234 pillow pack 245 polyamides 241–242 Index – – – – – – – – polycarbonate (PC) 242 polyester 241 polyethylene 239–240 polystyrene 241 polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) 242 polyvinyl chloride (PVC) 240 polyvinylidene chloride 240 protection against insect and rodent infestation 231–232 – protection against microbial contamination 230–231 – regenerated cellulose 238–239 – rigid and semi-rigid plastic containers 247–248 – – blow molding 247–248 – – compression molding 248 – – injection molding 248 – – thermoforming 247 – sachet 245 – solid fiberboard 236 – taint 232 – tamper-evident/resistant packages 232–233 – textiles 237 – wastes impact 575–578 – wooden containers 237 Packed bed reactor 733–734 Packed columns 316 Paddle mixer 364–365, 367–368 Palm oils 462 Palm olein 462 Palm stearin 462 Pan (bowl, can) mixers 368–369 – rotating pan mixer 369 – stationary pan mixer 369 Paperboards for packaging 233–236 Papers for packaging 233–236 Parallel plate static treatment chamber 207 Parasites, high pressure effect on 184 Pareto diagram 658–659 Paste mill 381 Pasteurization 40, 47–52 – extended shelf life products 52 – fouling 51 – HTST pasteurization 43, 48–51 – medical stage 47 – milk pasteurization 49 – tunnel (spray) pasteurizers 51–52 Pastries 410–411 – manufacturing 426–427 – – laminated pastry 426 – – short-dough pastes 426 Pearlized film 241 Pebble mills 397 Pectin methyl esterase (PME) 212 Pectinase 749 Peeling 20 Pellet frying systems 482 Peltier cooling effect 136 Penetrated surface oil (PSO) 467 Peracetic acid (PAA) 551 Percentage extraction rate 398 Perfluorinated carbons (PFCs) 580 Permeability characteristics, affecting packaging 226–228 Personal hygiene 500 Pest control systems 499 Pest management 499 p-h diagrams 137 Pham’s model 149–150 Photostimulated luminescence (PSL) 167 Physical treatment – of wastewater 605–606 – – sedimentation and/or flotation 605 – – simplest flotation technique 606 Pillow pack, in packaging 245 Pin (pin-disk) mill 394 Piston dividing 418 Plain (P) regenerated cellulose 238 Plan–Do–Study–Act (PDSA) cycle 635–636 Plank’s Model 148–149 Planned shutdown time 637 Plant/building 624 Plasma processing 220 Plate contact systems 132 Plate evaporators 82–83 Plate filter press 287 Plate heat exchanger 42 Pneumatic (flash) dryer 98–99 – pneumatic ring dryer 99 Pneumatic nozzle 113 Polishing 400 – polishing filters 288 Polyamides (PAs) 235 Polyamides, in packaging 241–242 Polycarbonate (PC), in packaging 242 Polyester, in packaging 241 Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) 241 Polyethylene, in packaging 239–240 Polygalacturonase 191 Polymorphism 324 Polyphenoloxidases (PPOs) 189 Polypropylene, in packaging 240–241 – cast polypropylene 240 – oriented polypropylene (OPP) 241 Polystyrene, in packaging 241 Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) 242 769 770 Index Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) 461 Polyunsaturated oils, antioxidant protection of 710–712 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) 230 – in packaging 240 Polyvinylidene chloride (PVdC) 235 – in packaging 240 Positive displacement compressors (PDCs) 142 Postharvest handling 1–29 Post-processing contamination 33 Pot stills 315 Potato chips 479–481 Preparation of foods for processing 1–31, See also under Raw food materials – genetic engineering 7–9 – selective breeding 7–9 Prerefiner 402 Prerequisite programs (PRPs) 495–502 – essentials 498–500 – establishment – – cleaning methods 499 – – control of operation 498–499 – – design and facilities 498 – – maintenance 499–500 – – personal hygiene 500 – – pest control systems 499 – – pest management 499 – – product information and consumer awareness 500 – – sanitation 499–500 – – training 500 – – transportation 500 – – validation of 501 – – verification of 501 – – waste management 499 – operational prerequisites 501–502 Preservative releasers 265 Pressure assisted thermal processing (PATP) 200 Pressure-assisted thermal sterilization (PATS) 183 Pressure diagram 137–138 Pressure fryers 476–477 Pressure treatment 179–201, See also High pressure processing (HPP) Pressurised vertical filter unit 598 Prestorage hot water dipping 19 Primary identification 520 Private standards, traceability and 519 Process control in food processing 559–569 – control systems 560–566 – – automatic control 561–566, See also Automatic control system – – – – – – manual control 560–561 modern food processing 566–569 – bulk commodity processing 566 – manufactured products 566 – manufacturing execution systems 568–569 – – products which have been subjected to processing methods 566 – – programmable logic controller (PLC) 567 – – SCADA 566–568 – Process Control Chart (PRC) 642 – process parameters, measurement of 559–560 – – inline sensors 560 – – nonpenetrating sensors 560 – – offline sensors 560 – – online sensors 560 – – penetrating sensors 560 – – sampling sensors 560 Process description 504 Process distribution check sheet 661–662 Process realisation 623–665, See also Variation – cause and effect diagrams 657–658 – check sheets and histograms 659–665 – – concentration diagram 660 – – location plot 660–661 – – natural process behavior charts 662–665 – – process distribution check sheet 661–662 – – scatter plots 662 – continuous improvement, tools for 654–665 – deployment process flow charts 656–657 – lean 650–652 – – desirability vs acceptability 652 – manufacturing design 623–624 – mapping the process 655–656 – non-value-added activities 652–654 – outline process flow chart 628 – Pareto diagram 658–659 – and plant design 624–629 – process economics, investment criteria 629–633 – – considerations for 631–632 – – discounted cash flow 633 – – future value 634 – – inflation 633 – – internal rate of return 634 – – monetary (cash) flows 631 – – mortgage terms 631 – – net present value (NPV) 632–633 Index – – project appraisal, cumulative cash flow 634–635 – – returns on investment 632–635 – – simple return on investment 632 – – time value of money 632–635 – process flow diagrams 656 – process performance, determining and improving 635–638 – – OEE measures of performance 636–638 – – overall equipment effectiveness factors 637–638 – – Plan –Do –Study –Act (PDSA) cycle 635–636 – – plant operating time 637 – product 626–627 – statement of requirements (SoR) 624–626 Process traceability 515, See also Traceability Product crumb structure 420 Product identification 520–521 – 2D barcodes 520 – 2D data matrix bar code 521 – linear (1D) bar code 521 – primary identification 520 – secondary identification 520 Product life cycles (PLCs) 199 Programmable logic controller (PLC) 567 Propeller mixer 365–367 Proportional controller 563 Proportional integral controller 563–564 Proteases 750 Protein 440, 442–444 – purification 355–356 Proving 419–420 Pulsed electric fields (PEFs) 206–215 – applications of 214 – – oil extraction 214 – – traditional 214 – effects on enzymes 212–214 – effects on microorganisms 208–209 – – factors affecting 209–212, See also under Microorganisms – ElectroPure process 206 – hurdle technology 206 – static chambers 207–208 – – disk-shaped 207 – – parallel plate 207 – – rod-rod 207 – – U-shaped 207 – – wire-cylinder 207 – treatment chambers 207–208 Pulsed vacuum osmotic dehydration (PVOD) 109 r Radappertization 170 Radiant (infrared) heat drying 105 Radicidation 170, 174 Radiofrequency identification devices (RFID) 274, 715 Radiolysis 158 Radura symbol 168 Radurization 170, 174 Rapeseed (canola) oil 462 Raw food materials, See also Grading; Sorting – cleaning 13–20, See also Dry cleaning methods; Wet cleaning methods – – abrasion peeling 20 – – brine 20 – – flame peeling 20 – – lye 20 – – mechanical knives 20 – – peeling 20 – – steam 20 – composition of atmosphere for storage 12 – cultivars selection – damage of – deterioration of 6–7 – – biological changes – – chemical changes – – endogenous enzymes – – microbiological contamination – – nutritional changes – – physical changes – functional properties 5–6 – humidity of storage 11–12 – properties of 3–6 – – color – – flavor – – geometric 3–4 – – texture 4–5 – specifications – spoilage – storage of 9–12 – temperature of storage 10–11 – timing and method of harvesting – transportation of 9–13 Rayleigh waves 215 Real refrigeration cycle 138–139 Real time database (RTDB) 568 Rectifier column 318 Recycling, packaging materials 576–578 – feedstock recycling 577 771 772 Index – microwave-induced pyrolysis 577 – plastics 577 – super clean recycling process 577 Refining 234 Refractance window drying system 118 Refractance window evaporator 83 Refrigerant flow rate 144 Refrigerants 142–143 – carriers 142 – environmental aspects 578–579 – – chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) 578 – – global warming potential (GWP) 579 – – hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) 579 – – hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) 578 – – ozone-depleting potential (ODP) 579 – terms used in designing 143–145 Refrigerated partially fried fries 479 Refrigeration methods and equipment 131–135 – effects on food quality 150–151 – gas contact refrigerators 132–133 – immersion refrigeration 133–134 – liquid contact refrigeration 133–134 – plate contact systems 132 Regenerated cellulose for packaging 238–239 Regeneration 40 Rejection or retention factor (R) 333 Reset time 563 Resistance sealer 244 Resource recovery from food processing wastes 574–575 Returns on investment (RoI) 632–635 Reverse micelles 699–700 Reverse osmosis (RO) 331, 341–342 – double reverse osmosis 342 – milk processing 341–342 Reynolds number (Re) 46 Riboflavin 445 Rice, size reduction in 400 Rigid containers, in packaging 247–248 Ring dams 296 Ripening 412 – ripening delay 171 Rittinger’s law 388 Rod mills 397 Rodent infestation, packaging and 231–232 Roller mills 390–392 Rolls 408–410 Rotary drum vacuum filters 290 Rotary dryer 99 Rotary vacuum disk filters 291 Rotating pan mixer 369 s Saccharomyces cerevisiae 736 Saccharomyces uvarum 736 Sachet, in packaging 245 – horizontal form 245 – vertical form 245 Safety in food processing 491–512 – food packaging issues 495 – food processing technologies 495–496 – food safety hazards 492–493 – intrinsic factors 494–495 – – organic acids 494 – – water activity 494 – ongoing control of food safety 511–512 – prerequisite programs (PRPs) 495–502, See also individual entry – safe design 491–495 Saturated fatty acids 462 Scalping 14 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) 668 – conventional SEM 674 – environmental SEM 674 Scatter plots 662 Screens 14 Sealing 58, 244–245, See also Heat-sealing equipment; Packaging Second boilings 89 Secondary identification 520 Sedimentation 594 Sedimentation and/or flotation 605 Selective breeding 7–9 Self-opening centrifuge 299 Semi-products 482 Semolina 400 Senescence delay 171 Separation processes 281–327, See also Crystallization; Distillation; Solid–liquid filtration; Solid–liquid extraction – general liquid separations 283 – from liquids 282–283 – immiscible liquids 283 – liquid–solid separations 282–283 – separations from gases and vapors 283 – from solid matrix 282 – from solids 281–282 – solid–solid separations 282 Services 624 Shear waves 215 Shelf life and packaging 227 Shell-and-leaf filters 288 Short tube vacuum evaporators 80–81 Sieve plates 315 Simple extraction 310 Simple return on investment 632 Index Simplest flotation technique 606 Single-disk attrition mill 396 Single minute exchange of dies (SMED) 637 Single-screw extruders 433 – cross-channel flow 433 – drag flow 433 – pressure flow 433 – twin-screw extruders and 435–437 Single-service valves 378 Six Big Losses 638 Size reduction of solids 386–403 – attrition mills 395–396 – Bond’s law 389 – in cereals 398–400 – – maize 400 – – rice 400 – – wheat 398 – in chocolate 401–402 – coffee beans 402–403 – elastic limit 388 – equipment 389–398 – – edge mill 391 – – factors to consider 389–390 – – roller mills 390–392 – impact (percussion) mills 392–395, See also individual entry – Kick’s law 389 – oil seeds and nuts 403 – reduction ratio 386 – Rittinger’s law 388 – sugar cane 403 – tumbling mills 397–398 – – ball mills 397 – – rod mills 397 Sludge disposal 618–619 Sludge settling tank 609 ‘Smart’ packaging 715–716 Soaking 18 Society of Motor Manufactures and Traders (SSMT) 643 Softening 353–354 Solar drying 110–111 Solid bowl centrifuge (clarifier) 299 Solid fiberboard for packaging 236 Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) 702 Solid–liquid centrifugal separators 298–300 Solid–liquid extraction 302–311 – applications 308–310 – – cholesterol removal from dairy fats 311 – – decaffeination of coffee beans 311 – – edible oil extraction 308–309 – – extraction of sugar from sugar beet 309 – – fruit and vegetable juice extraction 310 – – hop extract 311 – – – – – – instant coffee manufacture 309–310 – instant tea manufacture 310 concentration gradient 304 extraction equipment 305–308 – multistage moving bed extractors 307–308 – – multistage static bed extractors 305–307 – – single-stage extractors 305 – mass transfer coefficient 305 – principles 302–305 – simple extraction 310 – solid–liquid interface area 303 – supercritical carbon dioxide as solvent 310–311 – total extraction 311 Solid–liquid filtration 283–294, See also Centrifugation – filter cake 284 – filter media 285–286 – – filter aids 286 – – fixed rigid media 285 – – flexible metal meshes 285 – – woven glass fiber 285 – filter medium 283 – filtrate 284 – filtration equipment 286–293 – – edge filters 289 – – filter piles or packs 289 – – gravity filtration 286 – – horizontal plate filter 288 – – Metafilter Pack filter pile 289 – – plate-and-frame filter press 287 – – shell-and-leaf filters 288 – principles 283–285 – vacuum filters 290–291 – – centrifugal filters 291–293 – – rotary drum 290 – – rotary vacuum disk filters 291 Solid–solid separations 282 Solid white board for packaging 235 Solids, separations from 281–282 Solution casting 238 Sonic mixer 373 Sorption isotherm 124 Sorting of raw materials 20–25 – criteria and methods of 20–23 – – color 21 – – density 21 – – fixed screens 21 – – flatbed and rotary screens 21 – – shape 21 – – size sorting 21–22 – – weight 21 Soya bean oil 462 773 774 Index Specific cake resistance 284 Specific steam consumption of evaporator 84 Spinning cone column 316 Spiral-wound membranes 337–339 Sponges 410, 413 Spore formers 48 Spouted bed dryer 97 Spray drying 111–115 – atomization 111 – centrifugal atomizer 113 – chambers 114 – pneumatic nozzle 113 – single-stage 112 – two-fluid nozzle 113 Spray washing 18 Sprenger 498 Sprouting 170–171 Stagnant zones 539 Standard vapor compression cycle 138–139 Starch-based products, extrusion of 437–442 Statement of requirements (SoR) 624–626 Static chambers 207–208 Static inline mixers 370 Stationary pan mixer 369 Statistical process control (SPC) 635 Steam distillation 315 Sterilization 40, 52–65, See also In-container processing – lethality values 54 Stirred tank reactor (STR) 614, 731 Stokes’ law equation 594 Strain variation within species, due to high pressure 185 Streptococcus thermophilus 740 Structural oil (STO) 467 Substrate, in pressure treatment 186 Sucrose polyesters (olestra) 463 Sugar boiling 89 Sugar cane, size reduction in 403 Sugar refining, filtration in 293 Sugars 441–442 Sulfate aerosols 580 Sulfitation 89 Sulfite paper for packaging 234 Sulfiting of fruits and vegetables 28–29 Sulfur dioxide (SO2 ) 28 Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6 ) 580 Sulfurous acid (H2 SO3 ) 28 Sun drying 110–111 Super clean recycling process 577 Super olein 462 Superabsorbers 269 Supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO2 ) as solvent 310–311 Supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) systems 555, 566–568 – client layer 567 – data server layer 567 Supplier traceability 515 Surface oil (SO) 467 Surfactant theory of frying 472 Sweetened condensed milk 87–88 ‘Swiss roll’ of dough 418 t Tags 274 – active tags 274 – passive chips 274 Taint 232 Tamper-evident/resistant packages 232–233 Technologies for food processing 205–221, See also Emerging technologies for food processing Temperature control packaging 265 Temperature dependence 37–46 – batch processing 39–42 – conduction 40 – continuous processing 39–42 – convection 40 – regeneration 40 Temperature, in packaging 228 Tenter 238 Termed thermodurics 48 Terminal velocity 14 Tetra Brik system 262–263 Textiles for packaging 237 Thermal compression 142 Thermal processing 31–73, See also Heat processing methods; Ohmic heating; Temperature dependence – heating foods, reasons for 32–33 – product range 34 – reaction kinetics 35–37 – – heat resistance at constant temperature 35–37 – – microbial inactivation 35 – safety and quality issues 33–34 – viscous and particulate products, problems with 65–66 Thermal vapor recompression (TVR) 85 Thermally accelerated short time evaporators (TASTEs) 90 Thermoform filling systems 263 Thermoforming 247 Thermoluminescence (TL) 167 Thiamin 445–446 Third boilings 89 Third-generation snack products 482 Index Three-piece metal can 252 Throughfield applicator 106 Time–temperature indicators (TTIs) 272 Time value of money 632–635 Tinplate, in packaging 248 – cold-reduced (CR) 249 – differentially coated plate 249 – double-reduced (DR) 249 Tissue paper for packaging 234 Tonne of refrigeration 144 Top-down approach 695 Toroidal bed dryer 98 Total extraction 311 Total suspended solids (TSS) 605 Traceability 515–530, See also Product identification – analysis 524, 526–527 – components 515, 523 – customer traceability 515 – of food distribution 528 – in food supply chain 519–520 – international/private standards 518 – – ISO 22000 standard 518 – – ISO 22005: 2007 518 – – ISO 9000 series 518 – – quality system management 518 – legislation and 516–518 – – ‘one step back’ and ‘one step forward’ approach 516 – management of information 522–523 – and private standards 519 – process traceability 515 – stages in conducting 524 – supplier traceability 515 Transmission electron microscopes (TEMs) 668 Transportation 500 Trickling filters 608–609 Triclosan (2,4,4’-trichloro-2’hydroxydiphenyl ether) 271 Tubes 236 Tubular bowl centrifuge 297 Tubular heat exchanger 42 Tubular membranes 337 Tumbling mills 397–398 Tumbling mixers 371–372 Tunnel (semi-continuous) freeze dryer 103–104 Tunnel (spray) pasteurizers 51–52 Tunnel dryer 94–95 Turbine mixer 365 Twin-screw extruders 434–435 – co-rotating 434–435 – counter-rotating 434 – intermeshing co-rotating extruders 434 – intermeshing counter-rotating machines 434 – intermeshing twin-screw extruders 434 – single-screw extruders and 435–437 Two-fluid nozzle 113 Two-stage homogenization 378–379 u Ultra high temperature (UHT) processing 34, 60–65 – process characterization 62 – – quality aspects 62 – – safety aspects 62 – quality and other processing conditions 64 – safety considerations 61 – spoilage considerations 61 Ultrafiltration 343–346 – applications for 343–346 – – animal products 345–346 – – diafiltration 343 – – oilseed and vegetable proteins 345 Ultrasonic Homogenizers 380 Ultrasonic sealing 244 Ultrasound power for food processing 215–218, 668 – enzymes 217 – fruits 218 – high-intensity ultrasound (HIU) 216–217 – longitudinal waves 215 – low-intensity ultrasound (LIU) 216–217 – microorganisms 218 – Rayleigh waves 215 – shear waves 215 – vegetables 218 Ultraviolet absorbers (UVAs) 271 Upflow sludge anaerobic blanket (USAB) reactor 614–615 Upper natural process limit (UNPL) 643 Urea formaldehyde 247 U-shaped static treatment 207 v Vacuum band (belt) dryer 117–118 Vacuum cabinet (tray or shelf) dryer 100 Vacuum drying 100 Vacuum evaporation 77–84 – ancillary equipment 84 – centrifugal evaporators 83 – condensers 84 – equipment used in 79–84 – long-tube evaporators 81–82 – – climbing film evaporator 81 – – climbing–falling film evaporator 82 775 776 Index Vacuum evaporation (contd.) – – falling film evaporator 82 – mechanical vapor recompression (MVR) 86 – multiple-effect evaporation 84–85 – natural circulation evaporator 81 – plate evaporators 82–83 – pumps 84 – refractance window evaporator 83 – short tube vacuum evaporators 80–81 – thermal vapor recompression (TVR) 85 – vacuum pans 79–80 – vapor recompression 85–86 – vapor–concentrate separators 84 Vacuum filters 290–291 Vacuum fryers 477 Vacuum puff drying 119 Vacuum spray freeze dryer 104–105 Valve plates 316 Vapor–concentrate separators 84 Variation 638–650 – description 641–644 – natural process limits 644 – – moving range to estimate process standard deviation 644–646 – natural process run chart in process improvement 646–650 – process data, collecting and analyzing 640–641 – – numerical data, collecting 640–641 Vegetable oils 462 Vegetable parchment for packaging 234 Vegetables – fermented 742 – ultrasound power effect on 218 Vegetative bacteria, high pressure effect on 183 Vertical screw mixers 371 – central screw 371 – orbiting screw 371 Vibrofluidizers 97 Vinegar 742 Vinyl chloride monomer (VCM) 230 Viruses, high pressure effect on 184 Viscous dissipation 66 Vitamin C nanoparticles 711 Vitamins 445–446 Volumetric heating 106 Vortex cooling effect 136 w Wafers 426 Wash still 317 Waste characteristics 572–573 Waste management 499 Wastewater 603–618 – biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) 604 – biogas utilization 616–618 – biological treatments 607–618 – chemical oxygen demand (COD) 604 – chemical treatment 606–607 – final disposal of 619 – from food processing operations 605 – physical treatment 605–606 – – sedimentation and/or flotation 605 – – simplest flotation technique 606 – processing technology 573–574 – sludge disposal 618–619 – total suspended solids (TSS) 605 Water absorption index (WAI) 437 Water activity 124 Water and waste treatment 593–619, See also Disinfection – aeration 595 – boiler waters 602–603 – clarification 595–597 – coagulation 595–597 – filtration 597–599 – – cartridge filters 599 – – high rate down-flow filter 598 – – nanofiltration 599 – – pressure filters 597 – – pressurised vertical filter unit 598 – flocculation 595–597 – fresh water 593–603 – primary treatment 594 – refrigerant waters 603, See also Wastewater Water-in-oil emulsions 384–386 – butter 384 – margarine 385 – spreads 385 Water-in-oil-in-water (w/o/w) 702 Water solubility index (WSI) 437 Wax-coated papers for packaging 235 Wet cleaning methods 17–19 – flotation washing 19 – froth flotation 19 – hot water rinse and brushing (HWRB) treatment 19 prestorage hot water dipping 19 – soaking 18 – spray washing 18 Wet scrubbers 115 Wet-strength papers for packaging 234 Wheat feed 399 Wheat, size reduction in 398–399 Whitening 400 Index Wine 737 – wine making, filtration in 294 Wire winding 198 Wooden containers for packaging Working 384 Wort 317, 736 x X-ray microscopy 677 X-rays irradiation 153–159 y Yeasts, high pressure effect on 183–184 Yoghurt 739–740 237 z z value 37 Zoogleal slime 597 Zoogloea ramigera 597, 608 777 ... 1. 2 .1. 5 1. 2.2 1. 2.3 1. 2.4 1. 2.5 1. 3 1. 3 .1 1.3 .1. 1 1. 3 .1. 2 1. 3 .1. 3 1. 3 .1. 4 1. 3.2 1. 4 1. 4 .1 1.4.2 1. 4.3 1. 5 Postharvest Handling and Preparation of Foods for Processing Alistair S Grandison Introduction... 3.2 .13 .1 3.2 .14 3.2 .14 .1 3.2 .14 .2 3.2 .14 .3 3.2 .15 3.2 .16 3.2 .16 .1 3.2 .16 .2 3.2 .16 .3 3.2 .16 .4 3.2 .16 .5 3.2 .16 .6 3.2 .17 4 .1 4.2 4.2 .1 4.2.2 4.2.3 4.2.4 4.3 4.3 .1 4.3 .1. 1 4.3 .1. 2 4.3.2 4.3.2 .1 4.3.2.2... 978-3-527-63436 -1 V Contents Preface to the Second Edition XV Preface to the First Edition XVII List of Contributors XIX Content of Volume 1 1 .1 1.2 1. 2 .1 1.2 .1. 1 1. 2 .1. 2 1. 2 .1. 3 1. 2 .1. 4 1. 2 .1. 5 1. 2.2 1. 2.3