Foam Engineering Stevenson_ffirs.indd iStevenson_ffirs.indd i 12/8/2011 4:48:50 PM12/8/2011 4:48:50 PM Foam Engineering Fundamentals and Applications Edited by Paul Stevenson Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Auckland, New Zealand A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication Stevenson_ffirs.indd iiiStevenson_ffirs.indd iii 12/8/2011 4:48:50 PM12/8/2011 4:48:50 PM This edition first published 2012 © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd Registered Office John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, United Kingdom For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at www.wiley.com. The right of the author to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. 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No warranty may be created or extended by any promotional statements for this work. Neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for any damages arising herefrom. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Foam engineering : fundamentals and applications / [edited by] Paul Stevenson. – 1st ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-470-66080-5 (hardback) 1. Foam. 2. Foam–Industrial applications. 3. Foam–Technological innovations. 4. Foamed materials. I. Stevenson, Paul, 1973– QD549.F59 2012 620.1–dc23 2011037211 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Print ISBN: 9780470660805 Set in 10/12pt Times by SPi Publisher Services, Pondicherry, India Stevenson_ffirs.indd ivStevenson_ffirs.indd iv 12/8/2011 4:48:51 PM12/8/2011 4:48:51 PM Contents About the Editor xiii List of Contributors xv Preface xvii 1 Introduction 1 Paul Stevenson 1.1 Gas–Liquid Foam in Products and Processes 1 1.2 Content of This Volume 2 1.3 A Personal View of Collaboration in Foam Research 3 Part I Fundamentals 5 2 Foam Morphology 7 Denis Weaire, Steven T. Tobin, Aaron J. Meagher and Stefan Hutzler 2.1 Introduction 7 2.2 Basic Rules of Foam Morphology 7 2.2.1 Foams, Wet and Dry 7 2.2.2 The Dry Limit 9 2.2.3 The Wet Limit 11 2.2.4 Between the Two Limits 11 2.3 Two-dimensional Foams 11 2.3.1 The Dry Limit in 2D 11 2.3.2 The Wet Limit in 2D 12 2.3.3 Between the Two Limits in 2D 12 2.4 Ordered Foams 15 2.4.1 Two Dimensions 15 2.4.2 Three Dimensions 16 2.5 Disordered Foams 19 2.6 Statistics of 3D Foams 20 2.7 Structures in Transition: Instabilities and Topological Changes 21 2.8 Other Types of Foams 22 2.8.1 Emulsions 22 2.8.2 Biological Cells 22 2.8.3 Solid Foams 23 2.9 Conclusions 24 Acknowledgements 24 References 25 Stevenson_ftoc.indd vStevenson_ftoc.indd v 12/5/2011 9:04:21 PM12/5/2011 9:04:21 PM vi Contents 3 Foam Drainage 27 Stephan A. Koehler 3.1 Introduction 27 3.2 Geometric Considerations 29 3.3 A Drained Foam 33 3.4 The Continuity Equation 35 3.5 Interstitial Flow 36 3.6 Forced Drainage 38 3.7 Rigid Interfaces and Neglecting Nodes: The Original Foam Drainage Equation 41 3.8 Mobile Interfaces and Neglecting Nodes 43 3.9 Neglecting Channels: The Node-dominated Model 46 3.10 The Network Model: Combining Nodes and Channels 48 3.11 The Carman – Kozeny Approach 50 3.12 Interpreting Forced Drainage Experiments: A Detailed Look 51 3.13 Unresolved Issues 53 3.14 A Brief History of Foam Drainage 54 References 55 4 Foam Ripening 59 Olivier Pitois 4.1 Introduction 59 4.2 The Very Wet Limit 59 4.3 The Very Dry Limit 61 4.3.1 Inter-bubble Gas Diffusion through Thin Films 61 4.3.2 von Neumann Ripening for 2D Foams 62 4.3.3 3D Coarsening 64 4.4 Wet Foams 65 4.5 Controlling the Coarsening Rate 69 4.5.1 Gas Solubility 69 4.5.2 Resistance to Gas Permeation 70 4.5.3 Shell Mechanical Strength 70 4.5.4 Bulk Modulus 71 References 72 5 Coalescence in Foams 75 Annie Colin 5.1 Introduction 75 5.2 Stability of Isolated Thin Films 76 5.2.1 Experimental Studies Dealing with Isolated Thin Liquid Films 76 5.2.2 Theoretical Description of the Rupture of an Isolated Thin Liquid Film 77 5.3 Structure and Dynamics of Foam Rupture 78 5.4 What Are the Key Parameters in the Coalescence Process? 81 Stevenson_ftoc.indd viStevenson_ftoc.indd vi 12/5/2011 9:04:22 PM12/5/2011 9:04:22 PM Contents vii 5.5 How Do We Explain the Existence of a Critical Liquid Fraction? 86 5.6 Conclusion 89 References 89 6 Foam Rheology 91 Nikolai D. Denkov, Slavka S. Tcholakova, Reinhard Höhler and Sylvie Cohen-Addad 6.1 Introduction 91 6.2 Main Experimental and Theoretical Approaches 93 6.3 Foam Visco-elasticity 95 6.3.1 Linear Elasticity 95 6.3.2 Non-linear Elasticity 98 6.3.3 Linear Relaxations 99 6.3.4 Shear Modulus of Particle-laden Foams 102 6.4 Yielding 103 6.5 Plastic Flow 105 6.6 Viscous Dissipation in Steadily Sheared Foams 106 6.6.1 Predominant Viscous Friction in the Foam Films 108 6.6.2 Predominant Viscous Friction in the Surfactant Adsorption Layer 111 6.7 Foam–Wall Viscous Friction 112 6.8 Conclusions 114 Abbreviations 115 Acknowledgement 115 References 116 7 Particle Stabilized Foams 121 G. Kaptay and N. Babcsán 7.1 Introduction 121 7.2 A Summary of Some Empirical Observations 123 7.3 On the Thermodynamic Stability of Particle Stabilized Foams 125 7.4 On the Ability of Particles to Stabilize Foams during Their Production 131 7.5 Design Rules for Particle Stabilized Foams 135 7.6 Conclusions 138 Acknowledgement 138 References 138 8 Pneumatic Foam 145 Paul Stevenson and Xueliang Li 8.1 Preamble 145 8.2 Vertical Pneumatic Foam 145 8.2.1 Introduction 145 8.2.2 The Hydrodynamics of Vertical Pneumatic Foam 147 Stevenson_ftoc.indd viiStevenson_ftoc.indd vii 12/5/2011 9:04:22 PM12/5/2011 9:04:22 PM viii Contents 8.2.3 The ‘Vertical Foam Misapprehension’ 152 8.2.4 Bubble Size Distributions in Foam 153 8.2.5 Non-overflowing Pneumatic Foam 153 8.2.6 The Influence of Humidity upon Pneumatic Foam with a Free Surface 155 8.2.7 Wet Pneumatic Foam and Flooding 155 8.2.8 Shear Stress Imparted by the Column Wall 157 8.2.9 Changes in Flow Cross-sectional Area 158 8.3 Horizontal Flow of Pneumatic Foam 158 8.3.1 Introduction 158 8.3.2 Lemlich’s Observations 159 8.3.3 Wall-slip and Velocity Profiles 160 8.3.4 Horizontal Flow Regimes 161 8.4 Pneumatic Foam in Inclined Channels 162 8.5 Methods of Pneumatic Foam Production 162 Nomenclature 164 References 165 9 Non-aqueous Foams: Formation and Stability 169 Lok Kumar Shrestha and Kenji Aramaki 9.1 Introduction 169 9.1.1 Foam Formation and Structures 169 9.1.2 Foam Stability 170 9.2 Phase Behavior of Diglycerol Fatty Acid Esters in Oils 173 9.3 Non-aqueous Foaming Properties 174 9.3.1 Effect of Solvent Molecular Structure 174 9.3.2 Effect of Surfactant Concentration 177 9.3.3 Effect of Hydrophobic Chain Length of Surfactant 181 9.3.4 Effect of Headgroup Size of Surfactant 187 9.3.5 Effect of Temperature 189 9.3.6 Effect of Water Addition 191 9.3.7 Non-aqueous Foam Stabilization Mechanism 201 9.4 Conclusion 203 Acknowledgements 203 References 204 10 Suprafroth: Ageless Two-dimensional Electronic Froth 207 Ruslan Prozorov and Paul C. Canfield 10.1 Introduction 207 10.2 The Intermediate State in Type-I Superconductors 208 10.3 Observation and Study of the Tubular Intermediate State Patterns 211 10.4 Structural Statistical Analysis of the Suprafroth 215 Acknowledgements 224 References 224 Stevenson_ftoc.indd viiiStevenson_ftoc.indd viii 12/5/2011 9:04:22 PM12/5/2011 9:04:22 PM Contents ix Part II Applications 227 11 Froth Phase Phenomena in Flotation 229 Paul Stevenson and Noel W.A. Lambert 11.1 Introduction 229 11.2 Froth Stability 233 11.3 Hydrodynamic Condition of the Froth 235 11.4 Detachment of Particles from Bubbles 236 11.5 Gangue Recovery 238 11.6 The Velocity Field of Froth Bubbles 241 11.7 Plant Experience of Froth Flotation 242 11.7.1 Introduction 242 11.7.2 Frother-constrained Plant 242 11.7.3 Sampling, Data Manipulation and Data Presentation 244 11.7.4 Process Control 245 11.7.5 The Assessment of Newly Proposed Flotation Equipment 246 11.7.6 Conclusions about Froth Flotation Drawn from Plant Experience 246 Nomenclature 246 References 247 12 Froth Flotation of Oil Sand Bitumen 251 Laurier L. Schramm and Randy J. Mikula 12.1 Introduction 251 12.2 Oil Sands 251 12.3 Mining and Slurrying 253 12.4 Froth Structure 265 12.5 Physical Properties of Froths 272 12.6 Froth Treatment 274 12.7 Conclusion 278 Acknowledgements 278 References 278 13 Foams in Enhancing Petroleum Recovery 283 Laurier L. Schramm and E. Eddy Isaacs 13.1 Introduction 283 13.2 Foam Applications for the Upstream Petroleum Industry 284 13.2.1 Selection of Foam-Forming Surfactants 284 13.3 Foam Applications in Wells and Near Wells 287 13.3.1 Drilling and Completion Foams 287 13.3.2 Well Stimulation Foams: Fracturing, Acidizing, and Unloading 288 13.4 Foam Applications in Reservoir Processes 289 13.4.1 Reservoir Recovery Background 289 13.4.2 Foam Applications in Primary and Secondary Oil Recovery 292 13.4.3 Foam Applications in Enhanced (Tertiary) Oil Recovery 293 Stevenson_ftoc.indd ixStevenson_ftoc.indd ix 12/5/2011 9:04:22 PM12/5/2011 9:04:22 PM x Contents 13.5 Occurrences of Foams at the Surface and Downstream 298 13.6 Conclusion 299 References 299 14 Foam Fractionation 307 Xueliang Li and Paul Stevenson 14.1 Introduction 307 14.2 Adsorption in Foam Fractionation 310 14.2.1 Adsorption Kinetics at Quiescent Interface 311 14.2.2 Adsorption at Dynamic Interfaces 314 14.3 Foam Drainage 315 14.4 Coarsening and Foam Stability 316 14.5 Foam Fractionation Devices and Process Intensification 317 14.5.1 Limitations of Conventional Columns 317 14.5.2 Process Intensification Devices 319 14.6 Concluding Remarks about Industrial Practice 324 Nomenclature 325 References 326 15 Gas–Liquid Mass Transfer in Foam 331 Paul Stevenson 15.1 Introduction 331 15.2 Non-overflowing Pneumatic Foam Devices 334 15.3 Overflowing Pneumatic Foam Devices 336 15.4 The Waldhof Fermentor 338 15.5 Induced Air Methods 340 15.6 Horizontal Foam Contacting 341 15.7 Calculation of Specific Interfacial Area in Foam 342 15.8 Hydrodynamics of Pneumatic Foam 343 15.9 Mass Transfer and Equilibrium Considerations 345 15.9.1 Gas–Liquid Equilibrium 345 15.9.2 Rate of Mass Transfer 345 15.9.3 Estimation of Mass Transfer Coefficient 346 15.10 Towards an Integrated Model of Foam Gas–Liquid Contactors 347 15.11 Discussion and Future Directions 349 Nomenclature 351 Acknowledgements 351 References 352 16 Foams in Glass Manufacturing 355 Laurent Pilon 16.1 Introduction 355 16.1.1 The Glass Melting Process 356 16.1.2 Melting Chemistry and Refining 359 16.1.3 Motivations 362 Stevenson_ftoc.indd xStevenson_ftoc.indd x 12/5/2011 9:04:22 PM12/5/2011 9:04:22 PM Contents xi 16.2 Glass Foams in Glass Melting Furnaces 363 16.2.1 Primary Foam 363 16.2.2 Secondary Foam 363 16.2.3 Reboil 364 16.2.4 Parameters Affecting Glass Foaming 365 16.3 Physical Phenomena 365 16.3.1 Glass Foam Physics 365 16.3.2 Surface Active Agents and Surface Tension of Gas/Melt Interface 368 16.3.3 Drainage and Stability of a Single Molten Glass Film 369 16.3.4 Gas Bubbles in Molten Glass 370 16.4 Experimental Studies 373 16.4.1 Introduction 373 16.4.2 Transient Primary and Secondary Glass Foams 374 16.4.3 Steady-state Glass Foaming by Gas Injection 384 16.5 Modeling 386 16.5.1 Introduction 386 16.5.2 Dynamic Foam Growth and Decay 387 16.5.3 Steady-state Glass Foams 389 16.5.4 Experiments and Model Limitations 395 16.6 Measures for Reducing Glass Foaming in Glass Melting Furnaces 396 16.6.1 Batch Composition 396 16.6.2 Batch Conditioning and Heating 397 16.6.3 Furnace Temperature 397 16.6.4 External and Temporary Actions 397 16.6.5 Atmosphere Composition and Flame Luminosity 399 16.6.6 Control Foaming in Reduced-pressure Refining 400 16.7 Perspective and Future Research Directions 401 Acknowledgements 402 References 402 17 Fire-fighting Foam Technology 411 Thomas J. Martin 17.1 Introduction 411 17.2 History 413 17.3 Applications 415 17.3.1 Foam Market 415 17.3.2 Hardware 415 17.4 Physical Properties 416 17.4.1 Mechanism of Action 417 17.4.2 Class A Foams 422 17.4.3 Class B Foams 422 17.5 Chemical Properties 430 17.5.1 Ingredients and Purpose 430 17.5.2 Example Recipes 447 17.6 Testing 448 17.6.1 Lab Test Methods 449 17.6.2 Fire Test Standards 452 Stevenson_ftoc.indd xiStevenson_ftoc.indd xi 12/5/2011 9:04:22 PM12/5/2011 9:04:22 PM [...]... foam, which underpins the processes of froth flotation, foam fractionation and gas–liquid mass transfer, and one on the formation and stability of non-aqueous foams Finally in the Fundamentals section there is a chapter on ‘Suprafroth’, which is a novel class of magnetic froth in which coarsening is promoted by the application of a magnetic field and therefore is reversible In the second part, Applications ,... processes, and there is a description of foam behaviour and control in the production of glass One of the most common applications of foam is in firefighting, as is discussed in a dedicated chapter There is an important chapter on the creation and application of foams in consumer products; such products are typically of high added-value and therefore this field is rich with opportunities for innovation and. .. create two-dimensional foams of various kinds, offering attractive possibilities of easy experiments, computer simulations and visualizations, and more elementary theory One form of 2D foam consists of a thin sandwich of bubbles between two glass plates Let us begin with the 3D case, recognizing its greater practical importance 2.2 2.2.1 Basic Rules of Foam Morphology Foams, Wet and Dry Foams may be classified... fraction (i.e 1 − f) the foam quality Foams used in firefighting are classified by their expansion ratio, which is defined by f−1 At each extreme (the dry and wet limits) Foam Engineering: Fundamentals and Applications, First Edition Edited by Paul Stevenson © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd Published 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd Stevenson_c02.indd 7 12/5/2011 11:21:10 PM 8 Foam Engineering (b) (a) (c)... in the use of the material for fighting fires and to displace hydrocarbons from reservoirs Foam Engineering: Fundamentals and Applications, First Edition Edited by Paul Stevenson © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd Published 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd Stevenson_c01.indd 1 12/3/2011 3:28:03 AM 2 Foam Engineering 4 A finite yield stress Because gas–liquid foams can support a finite shear stress before... science and engineering, but all are leading experts in their fields and all are active in developing the science and technology of foam fundamentals and applications It is very much hoped that, in bringing together this diverse cohort of authors into a single volume, genuine crossdisciplinary research will be stimulated that can effectively address problems in the fundamental nature of gas–liquid foam. .. 18.3.4 Summary 18.4 Conclusions References 19 Foams for Blast Mitigation A Britan, H Shapiro and G Ben-Dor 19.1 19.2 Introduction Free Field Tests 19.2.1 Compressibility 19.2.2 Typical Test Rigs 19.2.3 Decay of the Foam Barrier 19.2.4 Effect of Foam Density 19.2.5 Foam Impedance and the Barrier Thickness 19.3 Shock Tube Testing 19.3.1 Main Restrictions 19.3.2 Foam Shattering 19.4 Theoretical Approaches... of foam fractionation Thus, the desire for a better understanding of a process technology for the separation of surface-active molecules from aqueous solution was the driver for the development of what some regard as the ‘standard model’ of foam drainage Robert Lemlich’s career was characterised by trying to describe and innovate process technologies that harnessed foam by building a better understanding... understanding and practical application Lemlich, and his co-workers, were able to effect these developments within their own research group Those of us who do not possess Lemlich’s skill and insight may not be able to make similar progress single-handedly, but can still benefit from cross-disciplinary collaboration to achieve similar goals As a chemical engineer working on the fundamentals of gas–liquid foam. .. active agents contained in liquids in household and personal care products (such as bathroom cleaner and shaving foam) , as well as in topical pharmaceutical treatments Thus, the geometrical, hydrodynamical and rheological properties of gas–liquid foam can be harnessed to make it a uniquely versatile multiphase mixture for a variety of process applications and product designs It is therefore a material . of Foam- Forming Surfactants 284 13.3 Foam Applications in Wells and Near Wells 287 13.3.1 Drilling and Completion Foams 287 13.3.2 Well Stimulation Foams:. Non-aqueous Foams: Formation and Stability 169 Lok Kumar Shrestha and Kenji Aramaki 9.1 Introduction 169 9.1.1 Foam Formation and Structures 169 9.1.2 Foam Stability