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CRC HANDBOOK
of
LUBRICATION
(Theory and Practice of Tribology)
Volume II
Theory & Design
Editor
E. Richard Booser, Ph.D.
Senior Engineer
Electromechanical Systems Engineering
Turbine Technology Laboratory
General Electric Company
Schenectady, New York
Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C.
Copyright © 1983 CRC Press LLC
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© 1983 by CRC Press LLC
No claim to original U.S. Government works
International Standard Book Number 0-8493-3902-2 (Volume II)
Library of Congress Card Number 82-4552
Printed in the United States of America 15 16 17 18 19 20
Printed on acid-free paper
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
(Revised for Volume 2)
Main entry under title:
CRC Handbook of Lubrication (Tribology)
Tiile of v, 2 varies: CRC handbook of lubrication
(theory and practice of tribology)
Bibliography: v. 1. p.: v. 2, p.
Includes index.
ISBN 0-8493-3902-2 (v.2)
Contents: v. 1. Applications and maintenance—
v. 2. Theory and design.
1. Lubrication and lubricants—Handbooks, manuals,
etc. I. Booser. E. Richard.
TJ1075.C7 1983
621.8’9 82-4552
Copyright © 1983 CRC Press LLC
PREFACE—VOLUME II
Volume II of the Handbook of Lubrication (Tribology) provides coverage of basic theory
involved in friction, wear, and lubrication; characteristics and application practices for
lubricants; and design principles for lubricated machine elements such as bearings, gears,
couplings, and seals.
Among significant developments covered in Volume II are new understandings of
boundary lubrication and wear; new elastohydrodynamic theory for rolling bearings, gears,
and cams; extension of hydrodynamic analysis to high-speed operation in the turbulent
regime and to dynamic response; and distinctive trends in the use of oils, greases, solid
lubricants, additives, and synthetics.
This volume is intended to be used as a companion to Volume I with its coverage of
theory and design. While construction equipment is covered in Volume I, for instance,
companion coverages on the properties of oils and greases, design of bearings and gears, and
lubrication fundamentals appear in Volume II.
The Society of Tribologists and Lubrication Engineers has sponsored the development of
the Handbook of Lubrication. STLE Technical Committees and Industry Councils provided
technical review, and the Handbook Advisory Committee oversaw the myriad day-to-day
activities in producing the Handbook. Much of the original plan for Volume II was
developed by Dr. P. M. Ku as the initial chairman of the Handbook Advisory Committee
until his untimely death.
It is hoped that the Handbook will aid in achieving more effective lubrication, in control
of friction and wear, and as another step to improve understanding of the complex factrors
involved in tribology.
E. R. BOOSER
EDITOR
Copyright © 1983 CRC Press LLC
THE EDITOR
Dr. E. Richard Booser has been a leader in the field of lubrication and tribology for the
past 30 years. He completed his academic training in Chemical Engineering at The
Pennsylvania State University in 1948 following research studies on composition, oxidation
mechanisms, additives, and refining procedures for petroleum lubricants. Since that time, he
has been employed by the General Electric Co. in development work on the lubrication of
steam and gas turbines, electric motors and generators, nuclear plant equipment, jet engines,
aircraft accessories, and household appliances.
His current assignment is Manager of the Systems Engineering Subsection in the General
Electric Turbine Technology Laboratory in Schenectady, N.Y., and he has served as leader of
the Company Center of Research on Bearings and Rotor Dynamics.
He has published 60 papers covering oil oxidation, grease life in ball bearings, turbulence
in high-speed oil-film bearings, selection of bearing materials, design of circulating oil
systems, electric motor lubrication, and lubrication of nuclear plants. Co-author of the
McGraw-Hill book Bearing Design and Application, he organized and taught bearing and
lubrication courses for 400 engineers over the past 10 years.
Elected President of the Society of Tribologists and Lubrication Engineers (formerly the
American Society for Lubrication Engineers) in 1956, he served the Society as Chairman of
various activities: Lubrication Fundamentals Committee, General Technical Committee,
Awards Committee, Fellows Committee, and two local sections. He is also a member of the
American Chemical Society, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Sigma Xi, and is a
registered professional engineer in New York State.
Dr. Booser draws on worldwide associations, and particularly on the resources and
members of the Society of Tribologists and Lubrication Engineers, to organize this
Handbook. It is a compilation by 80 authors of developments and practices in the emerging
fields of tribology: the science of friction, wear, and lubrication.
Copyright © 1983 CRC Press LLC
ADVISORY BOARD
Edmond E. Bisson
Consulting Engineer
Fairview Park, Ohio
Andrew E. Cichelli (Retired)
Senior Consultant
Lubrication and Special Projects
Bethlehem Steel Corporation
Bethlehem, Pennsylvania
Donald G. Flom, Ph.D.
Manager
Advanced Machining and Wear Control
Program
General Electric Company
Schenectady, New York
Patrick E. Fowles, Sc.D.
Assistant Manager
Research Department
Mobil Research and Development
Corporation
Paulsboro, New Jersey
Donald F. Hays
Department Head
Mechanical Research Department
General Motors Technical Center
General Motors Research Laboratories
Warren, Michigan
Robert L. Johnson (Retired)
Consultant
NASA-Lewis Research Center
Cleveland, Ohio
Elmer E. Klaus, Ph.D. (Retired)
Professor Emeritus
Fenske Faculty Fellow
Department of Chemical Engineering
Pennsylvania State University
University Park, Pennsylvania
Copyright © 1983 CRC Press LLC
EDITORIAL REVIEW BOARD
W. J. Anderson
NASA-Lewis Research Center
Cleveland, Ohio
D. A. Becker
National Bureau of Standards
Washington, D. C.
D. H. Buckley
NASA-Lewis Research Center
Cleveland, Ohio
S. R. Calish
Chevron U.S.A., Inc.
San Francisco, California
R. C. Elwell
General Electric Company
Schenectady, New York
I. L. Goldblatt
Exxon Research and Engineering
Linden, New Jersey
W. O. Heyn
Safety-Kleen Corporation
Elgin, Illinois
L. C. Horwedel
E/M Lubricants, Inc.
West Lafayette, Indiana
R. B. McBride
General Electric Company
Schenectady, New York
J. S. McCoy
International Harvester Company
Melrose Park, Illinois
C. A. Moyer
The Timken Company
Canton, Ohio
A. G. Papay
Edwin Cooper Inc.
St. Louis, Missouri
M. B. Peterson
Wear Sciences
Arnold, Maryland
H. J. Sneck
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
Troy, New York
W. C. Unangst
Bethlehem Steel Corporation
Bethlehem, Pennsylvania
W. H. Vickers
E. F. Houghton and Company
Norristown, Pennsylvania
M. H. Zitkow
Witco Chemical Company
New York, New York
Copyright © 1983 CRC Press LLC
CONTRIBUTORS
Frederick T. Barwell, Ph.D.
Emeritus Professor
University of Wales
and
Honorary Professorial Fellow
(Formerly Department Head)
Department of Mechanical Engineering
University College of Swansea
U.K.
E. O. Bennett, Ph.D.
Professor
Department of Biology
University of Houston
Houston, Texas
J. F. Booker, Ph.D.
Professor
School of Mechanical & Aerospace
Engineering
Cornell University
Ithaca, New York
Donald H. Buckley, Doc. of Eng.
Chief
Tribology Branch
NASA-Lewis Research Center
Cleveland, Ohio
Michael M. Calistrat
Manager, Research & Development
Power Transmission Division
Koppers Company, Inc.
Baltimore, Maryland
Herbert S. Cheng, Ph.D.
Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Technological Institute
Northwestern University
Evanston, Illinois
Horst Czichos, Ph.D.
Director and Professor
Department of "Special Fields
of Materials Testing"
Bundesanstalt fur Materialprüfung
(Federal Institute for Materials Research
and Testing)
Berlin-Dahlem, West Germany
A. O. DeHart
Fluid Mechanics Department
GM Research Laboratories
GM Technical Center
Warren, Michigan
William J. Derner
Consultant
Mechanical Power Transmission
Indianapolis, Indiana
Norman S. Eiss, Jr., Ph.D.
Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State
University
Blacksburg, Virginia
Richard C. Elwell
Engineer — Development
Turbine Technology Laboratory
General Electric Company
Schenectady, New York
Richard S. Fein, Ph.D.
Consultant
Poughkeepsie, New York
Formerly Senior Research Associate
Texaco Inc.
Beacon, New York
Gregory Foltz
Specialist
Cimcool Technical Services
Products Division
Cincinnati Milacron
Cincinnati, Ohio
Edward J. Gesdorf
Consultant
Farval Lubricating Systems
Farval Division
Cleveland Gear Company
Cleveland, Ohio
Copyright © 1983 CRC Press LLC
Howard N. Kaufman
Fellow Engineer
Tribology and Experimental Mechanics
Section
Mechanics Department
Westinghouse Research and Development
Center
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Ralph Kelly
Manager New Products
Cimcool Marketing Development
Products Division
Cincinnati Milacron
Cincinnati, Ohio
Elmer E. Klaus, Ph.D. (Retired)
Professor Emeritus
Fenske Faculty Fellow
Department of Chemical Engineering
Pennsylvania State University
University Park, Pennsylvania
John K. Lancaster, Ph.D.
Head
Materials and Structures Department
Royal Aircraft Establishment
Farnborough, Hants, U.K.
K. C. Ludema, Ph.D.
Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineers
University of Michigan
Ann Arbor, Michigan
S. Frank Murray
Senior Research Engineer
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
Troy, New York
James A. O’Brien
Manager, Planning
Amoco Petroleum Additives Company
Clayton, Missouri
Eugene E. Pfaffenberger, P.E.
Manager
Engineering Analysis
Link-Belt Bearing Division
PT Components, Inc.
Indianapolis, Indiana
Ernest Rabinowicz, Ph.D.
Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
M.I.T.
Cambridge, Massachusetts
John L. Radovich
Senior Product Designer
Gear Division
Staff Lubrication Engineer
Farrel Company
Emhart Machinery Group
Ansonia, Connecticut
Albert A. Raimondi, Ph.D.
Manager
Tribology and Experimental Mechanics
Westinghouse R & D Center
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Carleton N. Rowe, Ph.D.
Research Associate
Mobil Research and Development
Corporation
Paulsboro, New Jersey
Irwin W. Ruge (Retired)
Product Manager
Marketing Technical Services
Union Oil Company of California
Schaumburg, Illinois
John A. Schey, Ph.D.
Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
University of Waterloo
Waterloo, Ontario, Canada
Milton C. Shaw, Sc.D.
Professor
Department of Mechanical and Aerospace
Engineering
Arizona State University
Tempe, Arizona
Henry J. Sneck, Ph.D.
Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
Troy, New York
Copyright © 1983 CRC Press LLC
William K. Stair
Director
Engineering Experiment Station
and
Associate Dean
College of Engineering
University of Tennessee
Knoxville, Tennessee
Andras Z. Szeri, Ph.D.
Consultant
Westinghouse Research Laboratories
and
Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
University of Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Elmer J. Tewksbury, Ph.D. (Retired)
Professor
Department of Chemical Enigneering
Pennsylvania State University
University Park, Pennsylvania
Arthur J. Twidale
Managing Director
Denco Farval Limited
Hereford, England
John H. Vohr, Ph.D.
Senior Engineer
Turbine Technology Laboratory
General Electric Company
Schenectady, New York
D. F. Wilcock, D.E.S.
President
Tribolock, Inc.
Schenectady, New York
Desmond C. J. Williams
Director
Denco Farval Limited
Hereford, England
J. Brian P. Williamson, Ph.D.
Scientific Consultant
Williamson Interface Limited
Malvern, England
Copyright © 1983 CRC Press LLC
TABLE OF CONTENTS
FRICTION, WEAR, AND LUBRICATION THEORY
The Shape of Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
Properties of Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
Boundary Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
Hydrodynamic Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
Numerical Methods in Hydrodynamic Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93
Hydrostatic Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
Squeeze Films and Bearing Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .121
Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139
Metallic Wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .163
Wear of Nonmetallic Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .185
Wear Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .201
Lubricated Wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .209
LUBRICANTS AND THEIR APPLICATION
Liquid Lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229
Lubricating Greases—Characteristics and Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .255
Solid Lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .269
Properties of Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .291
Lubricating Oil Additives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .301
Metal Processing—Deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .317
Metal Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .335
Cutting Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .357
Cutting Fluids—Microbial Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .371
Lubricant Application Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .379
Circulating Oil Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .395
DESIGN PRINCIPLES
Journal and Thrust Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .413
Sliding Bearing Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .463
Sliding Bearing Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .477
Rolling Element Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .495
Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .539
Mechanical Shaft Couplings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
Dynamic Seals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .581
Wear Resistant Coatings and Surface Treatments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .623
Systems Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .645
Copyright © 1983 CRC Press LLC
[...]... obtain, the advent of computer-coupled profile analyzers will encourage wider use of this potent method of describing surfaces Figure 6 shows part of such a map of a bead-blasted surface There is often remarkable similarity between maps of the surface of solids and ordinary contour maps of the surface of the earth The scale factor is about 108 to 1 The ratio of height to spacing of the hills are similar... components of the profile as illustrated in Figure 5 The top profile represents the actual movement of the stylus on a surface The lower ones show the same profile using cutoffs of 0.8, 0.25, and 0.08 mm The international standard roughness-width cutoffs are Millimeters Inches 0.08 0.003 0.25 0.010 0.80 0.030 The preferred value of 0.80 mm is assumed unless a different cutoff is specified Roughnesswidth cutoff.. .CRC HANDBOOK OF LUBRICATION (Theory and Practice of Tribology) E Richard Booser, Editor Volume I Application and Maintenance Applications Industrial Lubrication Practices Maintenance Appendixes Volume II Theory and Design Friction, Wear, and Lubrication Theory Lubricants and Their Application Design Principles Copyright © 1983 CRC Press LLC Friction, Wear, and Lubrication Theory Copyright © 1983 CRC. .. chart to produce a profile of the surface Many surfaces contain flaws — unintentional, infrequent defects, such as cracks, inclusions, and scratches Profiles should be positioned to avoid these aberrations whenever possible Surface profiles usually contain three major components (Figure 4): Copyright © 1983 CRC Press LLC 4 CRC Handbook of Lubrication A B FIGURE 1 Electron micrographs of (A) mechanically... 400 °C METHODS OF CHARACTERIZATION OF SURFACES Microscopy Microscopy is the most common technique employed for characterization of surfaces Copyright © 1983 CRC Press LLC 18 CRC Handbook of Lubrication FIGURE 1 Schematic representation of a metal surface The ordinary optical microscope can yield detailed surface features at magnifications up to about 500 times, 1000 times with the aid of oil immersion... a much smoother surface, for example) Copyright © 1983 CRC Press LLC 14 CRC Handbook of Lubrication FIGURE 11 Cumulative height distribution and typical profile of a turned surface (solid circles) The distribution is definitely nonGaussian The profile peaks (x’s) however are much more nearly Gaussian Most surfaces have mixed textures as evidence of more than one preparation process Normally features... Copyright © 1983 CRC Press LLC Volume II FIGURE 2 Comparative size of surface-related phenomena FIGURE 3 Contact areas revealed by chemical decoration Two copper surfaces were pressed together for 1 month in an atmosphere of 1% SO2 in air at 85% R.H., then photographed on separation Copyright © 1983 CRC Press LLC 5 6 CRC Handbook of Lubrication FIGURE 4 1 2 3 The three components of surface texture... Copyright © 1983 CRC Press LLC Volume II a b FIGURE 2 (a) Field ion micrograph; clean tungsten surface, (b) Concluded; vacancy in the (203) plane of a platinum surface Copyright © 1983 CRC Press LLC 19 20 CRC Handbook of Lubrication FIGURE 3 Planes of possible slip in a cubic crystal; (a) three (100) planes, (b) six (110) planes, and (c) four (111) planes The atoms making up the faces of the cube for... and Larrabee, G B., Eds., Characterization of Solid Surfaces, Plenum Press, New York, 1974 With permission Copyright © 1983 CRC Press LLC APS CRC Handbook of Lubrication TABLE 1 COMPARATIVE TABLE FOR THE VARIOUS TECHNIQUES USED FOR THE CHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF SURFACES Volume II a 25 b FIGURE 8 (a) Electron image of aluminum rider wear scar; (b) iron Kα map of aluminum rider aluminum surface is shown... surface in contact with another depends essentially on Copyright © 1983 CRC Press LLC 8 CRC Handbook of Lubrication the texture of its highest strata, and hardly at all on the shape of its valleys Frequently the highest parts of engineering surfaces differ significantly from the general texture Likely severity of wear between sliding surfaces is given by the Plasticity Index, which indicates whether . 2)
Main entry under title:
CRC Handbook of Lubrication (Tribology)
Tiile of v, 2 varies: CRC handbook of lubrication
(theory and practice of tribology)
Bibliography:. cutoffs of 0.8, 0.25, and 0.08 mm. The international standard roughness-width
cutoffs are
6CRC Handbook of Lubrication
FIGURE 4.The three components of
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