McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Environmental Science McGraw-Hill New York Chicago San Francisco Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan New Delhi San Juan Seoul Singapore Sydney Toronto Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc All rights reserved Manufactured in the United States of America Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher 0-07-143397-X The material in this eBook also appears in the print version of this title: 0-7-142177-7 All trademarks are trademarks of their respective owners Rather than put a trademark symbol after every occurrence of a trademarked name, we use names in an editorial fashion only, and to the benefit of the trademark owner, with no intention of infringement of the trademark Where such designations appear in this book, they have been printed with initial caps McGraw-Hill eBooks are available at special quantity discounts to use as premiums and sales promotions, or for use in corporate training programs For more information, please contact George Hoare, Special Sales, at george_hoare@mcgraw-hill.com or (212) 904-4069 TERMS OF USE This is a copyrighted work and The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc (“McGrawHill”) and its licensors reserve all rights in and to the work Use of this work is subject to these terms Except as permitted under the Copyright Act of 1976 and the right to store and retrieve one copy of the work, you may not decompile, disassemble, reverse engineer, reproduce, modify, create derivative works based upon, transmit, distribute, disseminate, sell, publish or sublicense the work or any part of it without McGraw-Hill’s prior consent You may use the work for your own noncommercial and personal use; any other use of the work is strictly prohibited Your right to use the work may be terminated if you fail to comply with these terms THE WORK IS PROVIDED “AS IS” McGRAW-HILL AND ITS LICENSORS MAKE NO GUARANTEES OR WARRANTIES AS TO THE ACCURACY, ADEQUACY OR COMPLETENESS OF OR RESULTS TO BE OBTAINED FROM USING THE WORK, INCLUDING ANY INFORMATION THAT CAN BE ACCESSED THROUGH THE WORK VIA HYPERLINK OR OTHERWISE, AND EXPRESSLY DISCLAIM ANY WARRANTY, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE McGraw-Hill and its licensors not warrant or guarantee that the functions contained in the work will meet your requirements or that its operation will be uninterrupted or error free Neither McGraw-Hill nor its licensors shall be liable to you or anyone else for any inaccuracy, error or omission, regardless of cause, in the work or for any damages resulting therefrom McGraw-Hill has no responsibility for the content of any information accessed through the work Under no circumstances shall McGraw-Hill and/or its licensors be liable for any indirect, incidental, special, punitive, consequential or similar damages that result from the use of or inability to use the work, even if any of them has been advised of the possibility of such damages This limitation of liability shall apply to any claim or cause whatsoever whether such claim or cause arises in contract, tort or otherwise DOI: 10.1036/007143397X Want to learn more? 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If you d like more information about this book, its author, or related books and websites, please click here For more information about this title, click here Contents Preface .v Staff .vi How to Use the Dictionary vii Fields and Their Scope ix Pronunciation Key xii A-Z Terms .1-465 Appendix .467 Base units of the International System 469 Derived units of the International System 470 Prefixes for units in the International System 472 Some common units defined in terms of SI units 473 Equivalents of commonly used units for the U.S Customary System and the metric system 474 Conversion factors for the U.S Customary System, metric system, and International System 475 The chemical elements .479 Periodic table 480 Classification of living organisms 481 Soil orders 490 Carbon cycle .491 Nitrogen cycle 492 Structure of the atmosphere 493 Major sources and types of indoor air pollutants 494 Major categories of water pollutants 495 Top fifteen hazardous substances, 2001 496 Copyright 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc Click here for Terms of Use This page intentionally left blank Preface The McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Environmental Science provides a compendium of 8,800 terms that are relevant to environmental science and related fields of science and technology The coverage includes terminology from more than 30 disciplines, including agriculture, botany, chemical engineering, civil engineering, climatology, ecology, forestry, genetics and evolution, geochemistry, geography and mapping, meteorology, microbiology, mycology, oceanography, petroleum and mining engineering, plant pathology, systematics, and zoology The definitions are derived from the McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 6th edition (2003) The pronunciation of each term is provided along with synonyms, acronyms, and abbreviations where appropriate A guide to the use of the Dictionary is included, explaining the alphabetical organization of terms, the format of the book, cross referencing, and how synonyms, variant spellings, abbreviations, and similar information are handled A pronunciation key is also provided to assist the reader An appendix provides definitions and conversion tables for commonly used scientific units as well as charts and listings of useful environmental data Many of the terms used in environmental science are often found in specialized dictionaries and glossaries; the McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Environmental Science, however, aims to provide the user with the convenience of a single, comprehensive reference It is the editors’ hope that it will serve the needs of scientists, engineers, students, teachers, librarians, and writers for high-quality information, and that it will contribute to scientific literacy and communication Mark D Licker Publisher v Copyright 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc Click here for Terms of Use Staff Mark D Licker, Publisher—Science Elizabeth Geller, Managing Editor Jonathan Weil, Senior Staff Editor David Blumel, Staff Editor Alyssa Rappaport, Staff Editor Charles Wagner, Digital Content Manager Renee Taylor, Editorial Assistant Roger Kasunic, Vice President—Editing, Design, and Production Joe Faulk, Editing Manager Frank Kotowski, Jr., Senior Editing Supervisor Ron Lane, Art Director Thomas G Kowalczyk, Production Manager Pamela A Pelton, Senior Production Supervisor Henry F Beechhold, Pronunciation Editor Professor Emeritus of English Former Chairman, Linguistics Program The College of New Jersey Trenton, New Jersey vi Copyright 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc Click here for Terms of Use How to Use the Dictionary ALPHABETIZATION The terms in the McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Environmental Science are alphabetized on a letter-by-letter basis; word spacing, hyphen, comma, solidus, and apostrophe in a term are ignored in the sequencing For example, an ordering of terms would be: Animalia animal kingdom apple-cedar rust apple scab disease Darwinism Darwin’s theory FORMAT The basic format for a defining entry provides the term in boldface, the field in small capitals, and the single definition in lightface: term [FIELD] Definition A term may be followed by multiple definitions, each introduced by a boldface number: term [FIELD] Definition Definition Definition A term may have difinitions in two or more fields: term [ECOL] Definition [GEN] Definition A simple cross-reference entry appears as: term See another term A cross reference may also appear in combination with definitions: term [ECOL] Definition [GEN] See another term CROSS REFERENCING A cross-reference entry directs the user to the defining entry For example, the user looking up “aiophyllous” finds: aiophyllous See evergreen The user then turns to the “E” terms for the definition Cross references are also made from variant spellings, acronyms, abbreviations, and symbols aestivation See estivation ED50 See effective dose 50 PVC See polyvinyl chloride ALSO KNOWN AS , etc A definition may conclude with a mention of a synonym of the term, a variant spelling, an abbreviation for the term, or vii Copyright 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc Click here for Terms of Use other such information, introduced by “Also known as ,” “Also spelled ,” “Abbreviated ,” “Symbolized ,” “Derived from ,” When a term has more than one definition, the positioning of any of these phrases conveys the extent of applicability For example: term [ECOL] Definition Also known as synonym Definition Symbolized T In the above arrangement, “Also known as ” applies only to the first definition; “Symbolized ” applies only to the second definition term [ECOL] Definition Definition [GEN] Definition Also known as synonym In the above arrangement, “Also known as ” applies only to the second field term [ECOL] Also known as synonym Definition Definition [GEN] Definition In the above arrangement, “Also known as ” applies only to both definitions in the first field term Also known as synonym [ECOL] Definition Definition [GEN] Definition In the above arrangement, “Also known as ” applies to all definitions in both fields CHEMICAL FORMULAS Chemistry definitions may include either an empirical formula (say, for acephate, C4 H10 NO3 PS) or a line formula (for sodium propionate, CH3 CH2 COONa), whichever is appropriate viii Appendix Classification of living organisms (cont.) Class Planctomycetacia Order Planctomycetales Phylum Chlamydiae Class Chlamydiae Order Chlamydiales Phylum Spirochaetes Class Spirochaetes Order Spirochaetales Phylum Fibrobacteres Class Fibrobacteres Order Fibrobacterales Phylum Acidobacteria Class Acidobacteria Order Acidobacteriales Phylum Bacteroidetes Class Bacteroidetes Order Bacteroidales Class Flavobacteria Order Flavobacteriales Class Sphingobacteria Order Sphingobacteriales Phylum Fusobacteria Class Fusobacteria Order Fusobacteriales Phylum Verrucomicrobia Class Verrucomicrobiae Order Verrucomicrobiales Phylum Dictyoglomus Class Dictyoglomi Order Dictyoglomales Class Saccostomae Order Anaulales Phylum Sporozoa Order Biddulphiales Subphylum Gregarinae Order Hemlaulales Subphylum Coccidiomorpha Subphylum Perkinsida Subphylum Manubrispora Order Triceratiales Subclass Chaetocerotophycidae Order Chaetocerotales Phylum Ciliophora Order Leptocylindrales Phylum Radiozoa Subclass Corethrophycidae Phylum Heliozoa Phylum Rhodophyta Class Rhodophyceae Subclass Banglophycidae Order Bangiales Order Cymatosirales Subclass Coscinodiscophycidae Order Arachnoidiscales Order Asterolamprales Order Aulacoseirales Order Compsopogonales Order Chrysaanthemodiscales Order Porphyridiales Order Coscinodiscales Order Rhodochaetales Order Ethmodiscales Subclass Florideophycidae Order Melosirales Order Acrochaetiales Order Orthoseirales Order Ahnfeltiales Order Parallales Order Balbianiales Order Stictocyclales Order Balliales Order Batrachospermales Order Bonnemaisoniales Order Ceramiales Order Colaconematales Order Corallinales Order Stictodiscales Subclass Cymatosirophycidae Order Cymatosirales Subclass Eunotiophycidae Order Eunotiales Subclass Fragilariophycidae Order Gelidiales Order Ardissoneales Order Gigartinales Order Cyclophorales Order Gracilarlales Order Climacospheniales Order Halymeniales Order Fragllariales Order Hildenbrandiales Order Licmorphorales Domain Eukaryab Order Nemaliales Order Protoraphidales Order Palmariales Order Rhabdonematales Kingdom Protista Order Plocamiales Order Rhaphoneidales Phylum Metamonada Order Rhodogorgonales Order Striatellales Phylum Trichozoa Order Rhodymeniales Order Tabellariales Subphylum Parabasala Order Thoreales Order Thalassionematales Class Trichomonadea Phylum Chrysophyta Order Toxariales Subkingdom Neozoa Class Bacillariophyceae Subclass Lithodesmiophycidae Subclass Bacillariophycidae Class Hypermastigotea Order Lithodesmialescidae Subclass Rhizosoleniophycidae Order Achnanthales Phylum Choanozoa Order Bacillariales Phylum Amoebozoa Order Cymbellales Subphylum Lobosa Order Dictyoneidales Subphylum Conosa Order Lyrellales Class Archamoebae Class Mycetozoa Order Mastogloiales Order Naviculales Class Chrysomerophyceae Order Rhopalodiales Phylum Percolozoa Order Surirellales Class Euglenoidea Order Thalassiosirales Class Bolidophyceae Order Bolidomonadales Phylum Foraminifera Phylum Euglenozoa Order Rhizosoleniales Subclass Thalassiosirophycidae Order Thallassiophysales Subclass Biddulphiophycidae 482 Order Chrysomeridales nom nud Class Chrysophyceae Order Chromulinales Appendix Classification of living organisms (cont.) Order Hibberdiales Class Dictyochophyceae Order Dictyochales Order Pedinellales Order Rhizochromulinales Order Gloeochaetales Phylum Prymnesiophyta (=Haptophyta) Class Pavlovophyceae Order Pavlovales Order Pyramimonidales Class Trebouxiophyceae Order Trebouxiales Class Ulvophyceae Order Bryopsidales Class Eustigmatophyceae Class Prymnesiophyceae Order Caulerpales Order Eustigmatales Order Coccolithales Order Codiolales Order Isochrysidales Order Dasycladales Order Pelagomonadales Order Phaeocystales Order Halimedales Order Sarcinochrysidales Order Prymneslales Order Prasioeales Class Pelagophyceae Class Phaeophyceae Order Ascoseirales Phylum Dinophyta Class Dinophyceae Order Siphonocladales Order Trentepohliales Order Chordariales Order Actiniscales Order Cutleriales Order Blastodiniales Order Ulvales Order Desmarestiales Order Chytriodiniales Phylum Euglenophyta Order Dictysiphonales Order Desmocapsales Order Dictyotales Order Desmomonadales Order Euglenales Order Durvillaeales Order Dinophysales Order Euglenamorphales Order Ectocarpales Order Gonyaulacales Order Eutreptiales Order Fucales Order Gymnodiniales Order Heteronematales Order Laminariales Order Kokwitziellaless Order Rhabdomonadales Order Scytosiphonales Order Nannoceratopslales Order Sphacelariales Order Noctilucales Order Sporochnales Order Oxyrthinales Order Tilopteridiales Order Peridiniales Class Phaeothamniophyceae Order Phytodiniales Order Phaeothamniales Order Prorocentrales Order Pleurochloridellales Order Ptychodiscales Class Pinguiophyceae Order Pinguiochrysidales Order Pyrocysales Order Ulotrichales Class Euglenophyceae Order Sphenomonadales Phylum Acrasiomycota Class Acrasiomycetes Order Acrasiales Phylum Dictyosteliomycota Class Dictyosteliomycetes Order Dictyosteliales Phylum Myxomycota Order Suessiales Class Myxomycetes Class Raphidophyceae Order Syndiniales Order Liceales Order Rhaphidomonadales Class Synurophyceae Order Thoracosphaerales Order Echinosteliales Phylum Chlorophyta Order Synurales Class Charophyceae Class Xanthophyceae Order Charales (=Tribophyceae) Order Trichiales Order Physarales Order Stemonitales Order Chlorokybaees Order Ceratiomyxales Order Botrydiales Order Coleochaetales Class Protosteliomycetes Order Chloramoebales Order Klebsormidiales Order Heterogloeales Order Zygnematales Order Mischococcales Class Chlorophyceae Order Rhizochloridales Order Chaetophorales Order Tribonematales Order Chlorococcales Order Vaucheriales Order Cladophorales Phylum Cryptophyta Class Cryptophyceae Order Cryptomonadales Order Cryptococcales Phylum Glaucocystophyta Order Odeogoniales Order Protosteliales Phylum Plasmodiophoromycota Class Plasmodiophoromycetes Order Plasmodiophorales Phylum Oomycota Class Oomycetes Order Sphaeropleales Order Saprolegniales Order Volvocales Order Salilagenidiales Order Pleurastrales Order Leptomitales Class Prasinophyceae Order Myzocytiopsidales Order Chlorodendrales Order Rhipidiales Order Cyanophorales Order Mamiellales Order Pythiales Order Glaucocystales Order Pseudoscourfeldiales Order Peronosporales Class Glaucocystophycaae 483 Appendix Classification of living organisms (cont.) Phylum Hyphochytriomycota Class Hyphochytriomycetes Order Hyphochytriales Phylum Labyrinthulomycota Class Labyrinthulomycetes Order Labyrinthulales Phylum Chytridiomycota Class Chytridiomycetes Order Meliolales Order Halosphaeriales Class Discomycetes Order Gomphales Order Hericiales Order Hymenoghaetales Order Medeolarlales Order Hymenogastrales Order Rhytismatales Order Lachnocladiales Order Lycoperdales Order Ostropales Order Cyttariales Order Melanogastrales Order Helotiales Order Nidulariales Order Blastocladiales Order Neolectales Order Phallales Order Chytridiales Order Gyalectales Order Poriales Order Monoblepharidales Order Lecanorales Order Russulales Order Neocallimastigales Order Lichinales Order Schizophyllales Order Spizellomycetales Order Peltigerales Order Sclerodermatales Order Pertusariales Order Stereales Order Teloschistales Order Thelephorales Order Amoebidiales Order Caliciales Order Tulasnellales Order Asellariales Order Pezizales Phylum Zygomycota Class Trichomycetes Order Eccrinales Order Harpellales Class Loculoascomycetes Order Tulostomatales Class Ustomycetes Order Coryneliales Order Cryptobasidiales Class Zygomycetes Order Dothideales Order Cryptomycocola- Order Mucorales Order Myriangiales Order Dimargaritales Order Arthoniales Order Exobasidiales Order Kickxellales Order Pyrenulales Order Graphiolales Order Endogonales Order Asterinales Order Platyglocales Order Glomales Order Capnodiales Order Sporidiales Order Entomophthorales Order Chaetothyriales Order Zoopagales Order Patellariales Phylum Ascomycota Class Archiascomycetes Order Taphrinales Order Schizosaccharomycetales Class Saccharomycetes Order Saccharomycetales Class Plectomycetes Order Pleosporales Order Melanommatales Order Trichotheliales Order Verrucariales Phylum Basidiomycota Class Basidiomycetes Subclass Heterobasidiomycetes Order Eurotiales Order Agricostibales Order Ascosphaerales Order Atractiellales Order Onygenales Order Auriculariales Class Laboulbeniomycetes Order Laboulbeniales Order Spathulosporales Class Pyrenomycetes Order Heterogastridiales Order Tremellales Subclass Homobasidiomycetes Order Agaricales cales Order Ustilaginales Class Tellomycetes Order Septobasidiales Order Uredinales Phylum Deuteromycetes (Asexual Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes) Class Hyphomycetes Order Hyphomycetales Order Stibeilales Order Tuberculariales Class Agonomycetes Order Agonomycetales Class Coelomycetes Order Melanconiales Order Sphaeropsidales Order Pycnothyriales Order Hypocreales Order Boletales Order Melanosporales Order Bondarzewiales Order Microascales Order Cantharellales Order Phylachorales Order Ceratobasidiaes Order Ophiostomatales Order Cortinariales Order Diaporthales Order Dacrymycetales Order Calosphaceriales Order Fistulinales Order Calobryales Order Xylariales Order Ganodermatales Order Jungermanniales Order Sordariales Order Gautieriales Order Metzgeriales 484 Kingdom Plantae Subkingdom Embryobionta Division Hepaticophyta Class Junermanniopsida Appendix Classification of living organisms (cont.) Class Marchantiopsida [unplaced orders] Order Oxalidales Order Sphaerocarpales Order Ceratophyllales Order Rosales Order Monocleales Order Chloranthales Order Zygophyllales Order Marchantiales Class Amborellopsida Division Anthocerotophyta Order Amborellales Class Anthocerotopsida Class Austrobaileyales Order Anthocerotales Division Bryophyta Class Sphagnicopsida Order Austrobaileyales Class Liliopsida Superorder Malvanae Order Brassicales Order Malvales Order Sapindales Subclass Asteridae Order Acorales [unplaced order] Order Alismatales Order Boraginales Order Arecales Superorder Cornanae Order Asparagales Order Cornales Order Commelinales Superorder Ericanae Order Archidiales Order Dioscoreales Order Ericles Order Bryales Order Liliales Superorder Lamianae Order Buxbaumiales Order Pandanales Order Garryales Order Dicranales Order Poales Order Gentianales Order Encalyptales Order Zingiberales Order Lamiales Order Fissidentales Class Magnoliopsida Order Solanales Order Sphagnicales Class Andreaeopsida Order Andreaeles Class Bryopsida Order Funariales Order Magnoliales Superorder Asteranae Order Grimmiales Order Laurales Order Apiales Order Hookeriales Order Piperales Order Aquifoliales Order Hypnobryales Order Canellales Order Asterales Order Isobryales Order Orthotrichales Order Pottiales Class Nymphaeopsida Order Dipsacales Order Nymphaeales Class Rosopsida Kingdom Animalia Order Orthotrichales [unplaced orders] Order Seligerales Order Berberidopsidales Order Splachnales Order Buxales Phylum Porifera Order Gunnerales Subphylum Cellularia Division Lycophyta Class Lycopsida Order Proteales Order Isoetales Order Saxifragales Order Lycopodiales Order Santalales Order Selaginellales Order Trochodendrales Division Polypodiophyta Subclass Caryophyllidae Class Polypodopsida Subkingdom Parazoa Class Demosponglae Class Calcarea Subphylum Symplasma Class Hexactinellida Order Caryophyliales Order Equisetales Order Marattiales Order Ophioglossales Order Polypodiales Order Psilotales Division Pinophyta Class Ginkgopsida Order Ginkgoales Class Cycadopsida Order Cycadales Class Pinopsida Order Dilleniales Subclass Ranunculidae Order Ranunculales Subclass Rosidae Phylum Placozoa Subkingdom Eumetazoa Phylum Cnidaria (ϭCoelenterata) Class Scyphozoa [unplaced orders] Order Stauromedusae Order Crossosomatales Order Coronatae Order Geraniales Order Semaeostomeae Order Myrtales Order Vitales Superorder Rosanae Order Celastrales Order Rhizostomeae Class Cubozoa Order Cubomedusae Class Hydrozoa Order Pinales Order Cucurbitales Order Hydroida Order Podocarpales Order Fabales Order Milleporina Order Gnetales Order Fagales Order Stylasterina Order Malpighiales Order Trachylina Division Magnoliophyta 485 Appendix Classification of living organisms (cont.) Order Siphonophora Order Tetraphyllidea Order Enoplida Order Chondrophora Order Cyclophyllidea Order Dorylaimida Order Actinulida Class Monogenea Order Trichocephalida Class Anthozoa Class Trematoda Order Mermithida Subclass Alcyonaria Subclass Digenea Subclass Chromadoria Order Strigeidida Class Secernentea Order Stolonifera (ϭOctocorallia) Order Azygiida Subclass Rhabditia Order Gorgonacea Order Echinostomida Order Rhabditida Order Alcyonacea Order Plagiorchiida Order Ascaridida Order Pennatulacea Order Opisthorchiida Subclass Zoantharia (ϭHexacorallia) Order Actinaria Subclass Aspidogastrea (ϭAspidobothrea) Phylum Mesozoa Order Corallimorpharia Class Orthonectida Order Scleractinia Class Rhombozoa Order Zoanthinaria (ϭZoanthidea) Order Ceriantharia Order Ptychodactiaria Order Antipatharia Phylum Ctenophora Class Tentaculata Order Cydippida Order Platyctenida Order Lobata Order Cestida Order Ganeshida Order Thalassocalycida Class Nuda Order Beroida Phylum Platyhelminthes Order Dicyemida Order Heterocyemida Phylum Myxozoa (ϭMyxospora) Phylum Nemertea (ϭRhynchocoela, Nemertinea) Class Anopia Order Palaeonemertea (ϭPalaeonemertini) Order Heteronemertea Class Enopia Order Hoplonemertea (ϭHoplonemertini) Order Bdelionemertea Phylum Gnathostomuilda Class Turbellaria Order Filospermoidea Order Acoela Order Bursovaginoidea Order Rhabdocoela Phylum Gastrotricha Order Strongylida Subclass Spiruria Order Spirurida Order Camallanida Subclass Diplogasteria Phylum Nematomorpha Class Nectonematoida Class Gordioida Phylum Priapulida Phylum Kinorhyncha (ϭEchinoderida) Class Cyclorhagida Class Homalorhagida Phylum Loricifera Phylum Mollusca Subphylum Aculifera Class Polyplacophora Class Aplacophora Subclass Neomeniophora (ϭSolenogastres) Subclass Chaetodermomorpha (ϭCaudofoveata) Subphylum Conchifera Class Monoplacophora Order Catenullda Order Chaetonotida Class Gastropoda Order Macrostomida Order Macrodasyida Subclass Prosobranchia Order Nemertodermatida Phylum Cycliophora Order Archaeogastropoda Order Lecithoepitheliata Phylum Rotifera Order Mesogastropoda Order Polycladida Order Prolecithophora Class Monogononta Order Ploima (ϭTaenioglossa) Order Neogastropoda (ϭHolocoela) Order Flosculariaceae Subclass Opisthobranchia Order Proseriata Order Collothecaceae Order Cephalaspidea Order Tricladida Class Bdelloidea Order Runcinoidea Order Neorhabdocoela Class Seisonidea Order Acochlidioidea Class Cestoda Phylum Acanthocephaia Subclass Cestodaria Class Archiacanthocephaia Subclass Eucestoda Class Eoacanthocephaia Order Caryophyllidea Order Spathebothriidea Order Sacoglossa (ϭAscoglossa) Order Anaspidea Class Palaeacanthocephala (ϭAplysiacea) Phylum Nematoda (ϭNemata) Order Notaspidea Order Trypanorhyncha Class Adenophorea Order Thecosomata Order Pseudophyllidea Subclass Enoplia Order Gymnosomata 486 Appendix Classification of living organisms (cont.) Order Nudibranchia Subclass Pulmonata Order Archaeopulmonata Order Basommatophora Order Stylommatophora Order Systellommatophora Class Bivalvia (ϭPelecypoda) Subclass Protobranchia (ϭPalaeotaxodonta, Cryptodonta) Order Branchiobdellida Order Acanthobdellida Class Pogonophora (ϭSiboglinidae) Subclass Perviata (ϭFrenulata) Subclass Obturata (ϭVestimentifera) Class Echiura (ϭPhasmatoptera) Order Dermaptera Order Embiidina Order Plecoptera Order Psocoptera Order Anoplura Order Mallophaga Order Thysanoptera Order Hemiptera Order Echiura Order Homoptera Order Xenopneusta Superorder Holometabola Order Heteromyota Order Neuroptera Subclass Pteriomorphia Phylum Sipuncula Order Coleoptera Subclass Paleoheterodonta Phylum Arthropoda Order Strepsiptera Subclass Heterodonta Subphylum Chelicerata Order Mecoptera Subclass Anomalodesmata Class Scaphopoda Class Cephalopoda Class Merostomata Order Xiphosura Class Arachnida Subclass Nautiloidea Order Scorpiones Subclass Coleoidea Order Uropygi (ϭDibranchiata) Order Siphonaptera Order Diptera Order Trichoptera Order Lepidoptera Order Hymenoptera Order Amblypygi Class Crustacea Order Sepioidea Order Araneae Subclass Cephalocarida Order Teuthoidea Order Ricinulei Subclass Malacostraca (ϭDecapoda) Order Vampyromorpha Order Octopoda Phylum Annelida Class Polychaeta Order Phyllodocida Order Spintherida Order Eunicida Order Spionida Order Pseudoscorpiones Superorder Syncarida Order Solifugae Superorder Hoplocarida (ϭSolpugida) Order Stomatopoda Order Opiliones Superorder Peracarida Order Acari Order Thermosbaenacea Class Pycnogonida (ϭPantopoda) Subphylum Mandibulata Class Myriapoda Order Mysidacea Order Cumacea Order Tanaidacea Order Isopoda Order Chaetopterida Order Chilopoda Order Amphipoda Order Magelonida Order Dipiopoda Superorder Eucarida Order Psammodrilida Order Symphyia Order Euphausiacea Order Cirratulida Order Pauropoda Order Flabelligerida Class insecta (ϭHexapoda) Order Decapoda Subclass Branchiopoda Order Ophelilda Subclass Apterygota Order Notostraca Order Capitellida Order Thysanura Order Cladocera Order Owenilda Order Collembola Order Conchostraca Order Terebellida Order Sabellida Subclass Pterygota Superorder Hemime- Order Protodrilida tabola Order Myzostomida Order Ephemeroptera Order Anostraca Subclass Ostracoda Order Myodocopa Order Podocopa Class Clitellata Order Odonata Subclass Mystacocarida Subclass Oligochaeta Order Blattaria Subclass Copepoda Order Lumbriculida Order Mantodea Order Calanoida Order Haplotaxida Order isoptera Order Harpacticoida Order Grylioblattaria Order Cyclopoida Order Rhynchobdeilae Order Orthoptera Order Monstrilloida Order Arhynchobdellae Order Phasmida Order Siphonostomatoida Subclass Hirudinea 487 Appendix Classification of living organisms (cont.) Order Poecilostomatoida Subclass Ophiuroidea Subclass Branchiura Order Phrynophiurida Subclass Pentastomida Order Ophiurida Order Cephalobaenida Order Porocephalida Subclass Asteroidea Order Platyasterida Subclass Tantulocarida Order Paxillosida Subclass Remipedia Order Valvatida Subclass Cirripedia Class Cephalaspidomorphi Order Petromyzontiformes Superclass Gnathostomata Class Chondrichthyes Subclass Holocephali Order Chimaeriformes Subclass Elasmobranchii Order Spinulosida Order Hexanchiformes Order Acrothoracica Order Forcipulata Order Squaliformes Order Ascothoracica Order Brisingida Order Pristiophoriformes Order Thoracica Order Rhizocephala Phylum Tardigrada Class Concentricycloidea Subphylum Echinozoa Class Echinoidea Order Squatiniformes Order Pristiformes Order Rhinobatiformes Class Heterotardigrada Order Cidaroida Order Torpediniformes Class Mesotardigrada Order Echinothuroida Order Myliobatiformes Class Eutardigrada Order Diadematoida Order Heterodontiformes Order Parachela Order Arbacioida Order Orectolobiformes Order Apochela Order Temnopleuroida Order Lamniformes Phylum Onychophora Order Echinoida Order Carchiniformes Phylum Phoronida Order Holectypoida Class Sarcopterygii Phylum Brachiopoda Order Clypeasteroida Subclass Coelacanthimor- Class inarticulata Order Lingulida Order Acrotretida Class Articulata Order Rhynchonellida Order Terebratulida Phylum Bryozoa (ϭEctoprocta, polyzoa) Order Spatangoida Class Holothuroidea Order Dendrochirotida Order Aspidochirotida Order Elasipodida Order Apodida Order Molpadiida Phylum Hemichordata Class Phylactolaemata Class Enteropneusta Class Stenolaemata Class Pterobranchia Class Gymnolaemata Order Ctenostomata Order Chellostomata Phylum Entoprocta (ϭKamptozoa) Phylum Chordata Subphylum Urochordata (ϭTunicata) Class Ascidiacea Order Aspiousobranchia Phylum Chaetognatha Order Phlebobranchia Class Sagittoidea Order Stolidobranchia Order Phragmophora Order Aphragmophora Phylum Echinodermata Subphylum Crinozoa Class Crinoidea Order Millericrinida Order Cyrtocrinida Order Bourgueticrinida Class Larvacea (ϭAppendicularia) Class Thaliacea morpha Order Coelacanthiformes Subclass Porolepimorpha and Dipnol Order Ceratodontiformes Order Lepidosireniformes Class Actinopterygii Subclass Chondrostei Order Polypteriformes Order Acipenseriformes Subclass Neopterygli Order Semionotiformes Order Amiiformes Division Teiestei Subdivision Osteoglossomorpha Order Osteoglossiformes Subdivision Elopomorpha Order Elopiformes Order Albuliformes Order Pyrosomida Order Anguilliformes Order Doliolida Order Saccopharyngi- Order Salpida Subphylum Cephalochordata (ϭAcrania) formes Subdivision Clupeomorpha Order Clupeiformes Order Isocrinida Phylum Chordatac Order Comatulida Subphylum Vertebrata Superorder Ostariophysi Superclass Agnatha Order Gonorthynchiformes Subphylum Asterozoa Class Stelleroidea Subclass Somasteroidea Class Myxini Order Myxiniformes 488 Subdivision Euteleostei Order Cypriniformes Order Characiformes Appendix Classification of living organisms (cont.) Order Siluriformes Order Gasterosteiformes Order Trochiliformes Order Gymnotiformes Order Synbranchiformes Order Musophagiformes Superorder Protacanthop- Order Scorpeaniformes Order Strigiformes Order Perciformes Order Columbiformes Order Esociformes Order Pleurnectiformes Order Grulformes Order Osmeriformes Order Tetraodontiformes Order Ciconliformes terygii Order Salmoniformes Class Amphibia Suborder Charadrii Superorder Stenopterygii Subclass Lissamphibia Suborder Ciconii Order Stomiformes Order Gymnophiona Order Ateleopodiformes Order Caudata (Urodela) Superorder Cyclosqua- Order Anura–frogs and mata toads Order Passeriformes Class Mammalia (Synapsida) Order Monotremata Order Didelophimorphia Order Aulopiformes Class Reptilia Order Paucituberculata Superoder Scopelo- Subclass Anapsida Order Microbiotheria morpha Order Myctophiformes Superorder Lampridiomorpha Order Testudines Subclass Diapsida Order Dasyuromorphia Order Peramelemorphia Order Sphenodonta Order Notoryctemorphia Order Squamata Order Diprotodontia Order Lampridiformes Suborder Lacertilia Order Xenarthra Superorder Polymixio- Suborder Serpentes Order insectivora Order Crocodylia Order Scandentia morpha Order Polymixiiformes Superorder Paracanthopterygii Order Percopsiformes Infraclass Eoaves Order Dermoptera Order Struthioniformes Order Chiroptera Order Tinamiformes Order Primates Infraclass Neoaves Order Carnivora Order Ophidiiformes Order Craciformes Order Cetacea Order Gadiformes Order Galliformes Order Sirenia Order Batrachoidiformes Order Anseriformes Order Proboscidea Order Lophiiformes Order Turniciformes Order Perissodactyla Superorder Acanthop- Order Piciformes Order Hyracoidea Order Galbuliformes Order Tubulidentata Order Mugiliformes Order Bucerotiformes Order Artiodactyla Order Atherinomorpha Order Upupiformes Order Pholidota Order Beloniformes Order Trogoniformes Order Rodentia Order Cyprinodontiformes Order Coraciiformes Suborder Sciurognathi Order Stephanoberyci- Order Coliiformes Suborder Hystricognathi Order Cuculiformes Order Lagomorpha Order Beryciformes Order Psittaciformes Order Macroscelidea Order Zeiformes Order Apodiformes terygil formes a Derived from G M Garrity et al., Taxonomic Outline of the Prokaryotes Release 2, January 2002, Springer-Verlag , New York http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bergeysouthline Readers interesed in determning taxonomic composition of lower taxa may obtain this document, free of charge b Condensed from Jan A Pechnik, Biology of the Inverlebrates, 4th ed., McGraw-Hill, 2000 c Condensed from Donald Linzey Vertebrate Biology Appendix 1: Classification of Living Vertebrates, McGraw-Hill, 2001 Note: The contributions of the following to the updating of this classification scheme are gratefully acknowledged: Dr Craig Balley: Dr Mark Chase: Dr George M Garrity: Dr S.C long; Dr Robert Knowlton; Dr Donald Linzey 489 Appendix Soil orders Order Formative element in name Alfisols alf Aridisols id Entisols Histosols Inceptisols ent ist ept Mollisols oll Oxisols ox Spodosols od Ultisols ult Vertisols ert General nature Soils with gray to brown surface horizons, medium to high base supply, with horizons of clay accumulation; usually moist, but may be dry during summer Soils with pedogenic horizons, low in organic matter, and usually dry Soils without pedogenic horizons Organic soils (peats and mucks) Soils that are usually moist, with pedogenic horizons of alteration of parent materials but not of illuviation Soils with nearly black, organic-rich surface horizons and high base supply Soils with residual accumulations of inactive clays, free oxides, kaolin, and quartz; mostly tropical Soils with accumulation of amorphous materials in subsurface horizons Soils that are usually moist, with horizons of clay accumulation and a low supply of bases Soils with high content of swelling clays and wide deep cracks during some seasons 490 Appendix Carbon cycle respiration 60 plant growth 61.3 ATMOSPHERE 750 chemical and biological deforestation uptake 1.1 92 vegetation 610 surface ocean organisms 1020 plant senescence 60.2 soils and detritus 1580 chemical and biological release 90 rivers 0.8 combustion 5.5 fossil fuels vertical vertical mixing mixing 100 101.6 intermediate and deep ocean 38,800 burial 0.2 sediments OCEANS LAND The storage of carbon in the atmosphere and terrestrial and oceanic ecosystems is in picograms (1 Pg=1015 g), and −1 fluxes of carbon between boxes are in Pg y 491 Appendix Nitrogen cycle ATMOSPHERE N2O (nitrous oxide) nitrogen fixation ation assimil NO3− (nitrate) ic rob ae ion an pirat res organism tissue (organic nitrogen) n mp o o ilati im ass de co tion ic a itrif den N2 (dinitrogen) sit NH4+ (ammonium) i nitr ion TERRESTRIAL/AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS 492 n tio fica Appendix Structure of the atmosphere 600 exosphere 500 critical level elevation, km 400 300 ionization 200 100 re atu per tem thermosphere mesopause mesosphere stratopause stratosphere tropopause −100 100 300 103 104 105 106 ions/cm3 (log scale) troposphere 500 700 900 1100 1300 temperature, °C The log scale applies only to the ionization curve km = 0.6 mi; °F = (°C × 1.8) + 32 493 Appendix Major sources and types of indoor air pollutants Sources Pollutants Combustion with appliances using fossil fuels or wood Particulate matter Nitrogen oxides Carbon monoxide Carbon dioxide Lead and trace metals Hydrocarbons Volatile organic compounds Tobacco smoking Particulate matter Carbon monoxide Carbon dioxide Nitrogen oxides Hydrocarbons Volatile organic compounds Radon progeny Building and furnishing materials Hydrocarbons (especially aldehydes) Volatile organic compounds Particulate matter Radon progeny Molds and other allergens Water reservoirs (fixtures for air conditioning, cleaning, or treating) Molds Bacilli and other bacteria Consumer products Halogenated hydrocarbons Volatile organic compounds Trace metals Animals (pets and opportunistic dwellers) and plants Allergens Carbon dioxide Infiltration Particulate matter Nitrogen oxides Sulfur oxides Pollen Molds 494 Appendix Major categories of water pollutants∗ Category Examples A Causes health problems Infectious agents Bacteria, viruses, parasites Organic Pesticides, plastics, detergents, chemicals oil, and gasoline Inorganic Acids, caustics, salts, metals chemicals Radioactive Uranium, thorium, materials cesium, iodine, radon B Causes ecosystem disruption Sediment Soil, silt Plant nutrients Nitrates, phosphates, ammonium Oxygen-demanding Animal manure and wastes plant residues Thermal Heat Sources Human and animal excreta Industrial, household, and farm use Industrial effluents, household cleansers, surface runoff Mining and processing of ores, power plants, weapons production, natural sources Land erosion Agricultural and urban fertilizers, sewage, manure Sewage, agricultural runoff, paper mills, food processing Power plants, industrial cooling *Reproduced with permission from W P Cunningham et al., Environmental Science A Global Concern, 7th ed., McGraw-Hill, 2003 495 496 SOURCE: Used as a degreaser, evaporates into air From food and air Product of combustion of gasoline and other fuels Inhaled in smoke Contaminated air and water Many kinds of industrial settings From food with low levels of contamination Still used as pesticide in parts of world From food and air Probable carcinogen; possible long-term effect on liver; possible reproductive problems Probable carcinogens Acne and skin lesions Probable carcinogens Acne and skin lesions Dizziness, numbness, unconsciousness, death Affects central nervous system, liver, and kidneys; probable carcinogen Probable carcinogen Probable carcinogens Difficulty reproducing and possible birth defects Probable carcinogen, possible birth defects Acute effects: drowsiness, headache, death at high levels Chronic effects: damages blood-forming tissues and immune system; also carcinogenic Probable carcinogen, kidney damage, lung damage, high blood pressure Multiple organ systems affected Heart and blood vessel abnormalities, liver and kidney damage, impaired nervous system function Neurological damage Affects brain development in children Large doses affect brain and kidneys in adults and children Permanent damage to brain, kidneys, developing fetus Acute effects: dizziness, headache, unconsciousness, death Chronic effects: liver, lung, and circulatory damage Probable carcinogens Acne and skin lesions Toxic effects Data from Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (Adapted from E D Enger and B F Smith, Environmental Science: A Study of Interrelationships, 8th ed., McGraw-Hill, 2002) Aroclor 1254 (a mixture of PCBs) Aroclor 1260 (a mixture of PCBs) Trichloroethylene DDT Chloroform Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons Benzo[b]fluoranthene Benzo[a]pyrene Cadmium Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) Benzene Released during combustion Living near a smelter or power plant Picked up in food Product of combustion of gasoline or other fuels In smoke and soot Tobacco smoke and charbroiled meats Lead-based paint Lead additives in gasoline Air or water at contaminated sites Plastics manufacturing Air or water at contaminated sites Eating contaminated fish Industrial exposure Industrial exposure Glues, cleaning products, gasoline Lead Metallic mercury Vinyl chloride From elevated levels in soil or water Source Arsenic Substance Top fifteen hazardous substances, 2001 Appendix ... listings of useful environmental data Many of the terms used in environmental science are often found in specialized dictionaries and glossaries; the McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Environmental Science, ... for Terms of Use This page intentionally left blank Preface The McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Environmental Science provides a compendium of 8,800 terms that are relevant to environmental science. .. process of transport of an atmospheric property solely by the mass motion of the atmosphere [OCEANOGR] The process of transport of water, or of an acqueous property, solely by the mass motion of the