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This product is part of the RAND Corporation monograph series. RAND mono-
graphs present major research findings that address the challenges facing the public
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high standards for research quality and objectivity.
Military Enlistment of
Hispanic Youth
Obstacles and Opportunities
Beth J. Asch, Christopher Buck, Jacob Alex Klerman,
Meredith Kleykamp, David S. Loughran
NATIONAL DEFENSE RESEARCH INSTITUTE
Prepared for the Office of the Secretary of Defense
Approved for public release; distribution unlimited
The RAND Corporation is a nonprofit research organization providing objective analysis
and effective solutions that address the challenges facing the public and private sectors
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© Copyright 2009 RAND Corporation
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without permission in writing from RAND.
Published 2009 by the RAND Corporation
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The research described in this report was prepared for the Office of the Secretary of Defense
(OSD). The research was conducted in the RAND National Defense Research Institute,
a federally funded research and development center sponsored by the OSD, the
Joint Staff, the Unified Combatant Commands, the Department of the Navy, the
Marine Corps, the defense agencies, and the defense Intelligence Community under
Contract W74V8H-06-C-0002.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Military enlistment of Hispanic youth : obstacles and opportunities / Beth J. Asch [et al.].
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN 978-0-8330-4572-0 (pbk. : alk. paper)
1. United States—Armed Forces—Hispanic Americans. 2. Recruiting and enlistment. I. Asch, Beth J.
UB418.H57M55 2009
355.2'236208968073—dc22
2009050790
iii
Preface
An ongoing concern of Congress, the Department of Defense (DoD), and the armed services
is whether the military represents U.S. society at large. An implicit goal is that diversity in the
armed services should approximate the diversity of the general population. A key aspect of that
diversity is the representation of Hispanics. Furthermore, when military recruiting becomes
more challenging, policymakers need to ensure that policies are in place to effectively enlist
youth in key demographic groups, such as Hispanics.
Hispanics are a growing segment of the youth population, yet they have historically been
underrepresented among military recruits. A widely cited reason is Hispanics’ below-average
rate of graduation from high school, combined with the services’ preference for recruits with
high school diplomas. But other, less studied, factors may also contribute. Such factors might
include lack of language proficiency as reflected in aptitude test scores; fertility choices; health
factors, such as obesity; and involvement in risky activities, such as the use of illegal drugs.
ese factors, to the extent they are present in the Hispanic population, could adversely affect
the services’ ability to meet their enlistment standards.
Our project, “Hispanic Youth in the U.S. and the Factors Affecting eir Enlistment,”
analyzed the factors that lead to the underrepresentation of Hispanic youth among military
enlistments. To help policymakers evaluate the feasibility of improving Hispanic enlistments
by recruiting more intensively from among the population that is qualified for service and the
implications of recruiting Hispanics who are less qualified, we also analyzed both the nonmili-
tary opportunities available to qualified Hispanic youth and the consequences of recruiting
less-qualified Hispanic youth.
is report should be of interest to policymakers and researchers concerned about social
representation in the military, opportunities for Hispanic youth, and military recruiting
policies.
is research was conducted for the Defense Human Resources Activity and for the
Office of Accession Policy, Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Personnel and Readi-
ness. is study was conducted in the Forces and Policy Resources Center of RAND’s National
Defense Research Institute, a federally funded research and development center sponsored by
the Office of the Secretary of Defense, the Joint Staff, the Unified Combatant Commands, the
Department of the Navy, the Marine Corps, the defense agencies, and the defense Intelligence
Community.
Comments are welcome and may be addressed to Beth Asch at Beth_Asch@rand.org.
For more information on RAND’s Forces and Policy Resources Center, contact the Direc-
tor, James Hosek. He can be reached by email at James_Hosek@rand.org; by phone at 310-
393-0411, extension 7183; or by mail at RAND, 1776 Main Street, Santa Monica, California
90407-2138. More information about RAND is available at www.rand.org.
v
Contents
Preface iii
Figures
ix
Tables
xi
Summary
xv
Acknowledgments
xxv
Abbreviations
xxvii
CHAPTER ONE
Introduction: Hispanic Enlistments in Perspective 1
Enlistment Standards
4
Organization of the Report
5
CHAPTER TWO
Overview of Service Enlistment Standards 7
Waivers
7
Enlistment Standards
8
Age
8
Citizenship
10
Number of Dependents
11
Financial Screening
11
Education
12
Aptitude
13
Moral Character
14
Substance Use
14
Language Proficiency
15
Homosexual Conduct
16
Height and Weight Standards
16
Strength Requirements
18
Medical Screening
18
CHAPTER THREE
Enlistment Qualifications 21
Data
21
Caveats
22
Organization
23
Hispanics in the Census and NLSY97
23
vi Military Enlistment of Hispanic Youth: Obstacles and Opportunities
AFQT 27
Weight
34
Number of Dependents
38
Substance Abuse and Illegal Activity
38
e Cumulative Effect of Enlistment Standards
41
Conclusions
49
CHAPTER FOUR
Health Obstacles to the Enlistment of Hispanic Youth 51
Previous Research on Hispanic Health
51
Citizenship and National Orgin
52
Data
53
Enlistment Standards and Measurement Strategy
53
Measurement of Health Conditions
53
Approach
54
Results
55
Discussion
61
Summary of Descriptive Results
62
Summary of Findings and Conclusions
63
CHAPTER FIVE
Analysis of Hispanic Military Career Outcomes 65
Conceptual Framework
66
Early Attrition and Promotion
66
Retention
66
Past Studies
67
Data
68
Career Outcomes for Hispanics Versus Other Races and Ethnicities
69
Linear Regression Methodology
71
Linear Regression Results
73
Adjusted Versus Raw Outcomes, by Race and Ethnicity
73
Effects of Entry Standard Characteristics on Outcomes, by Race and Ethnicity
75
Summary
85
CHAPTER SIX
Increasing Hispanic Enlistments: Evaluating Education and Career Choices 87
High School Dropouts and Category IV–V Youth
89
High School Graduates, Category IIIA–IIIB
93
High School Graduates, Category I–II
109
Conclusions
115
CHAPTER SEVEN
Policy Implications 117
Contents vii
APPENDIXES
A. Detailed Information on Enlistment Standards 121
B. Service Waiver Policy
169
C.
Estimates of Prevalence of Health Conditions, by Race and Ethnicity 177
D. Tests of Statistical Significance in Medical Disqualification Rates
181
References
189
[...]... black enlistments were 14.1 percent of Army enlistments in 1971 and 14.2 percent of all DoD enlistments (Binkin and Eitelberg, 1982), they had risen dramatically to 23.2 percent for the Army and 22.8 percent for all DoD by 1975, the second full year of the AVF By 1979, black enlistments had reached 36.1 percent of Army enlistments and 36.7 percent of DoD enlistments DoD data reveal that Hispanic enlistments... result of this change, agencies—including the Department of Defense—must offer individuals the opportunity to select one or more races when reporting race, and the categories for ethnicity must include Hispanic or “Latino” and “Not Hispanic or Latino.” In this report, the term Hispanic is used broadly to encompass those of Hispanic and Latino descent xv xvi Military Enlistment of Hispanic Youth: ... 186 186 186 186 187 Summary Hispanics are underrepresented among military recruits In 2007, Hispanics made up 17.0 percent of the general population (ages 18 to 40) but only 11.4 percent of Army enlistment contracts and 15 percent of Navy enlistment contracts While the trend is upward (in 1994, 6.6 percent of Army contracts and 8.9 percent of Navy contracts were Hispanic) ,1 Hispanics are still underrepresented... other factors may be at play Hispanic youth may face greater challenges in meeting one or more of the military s enlistment standards The services screen applicants in terms of education, aptitude, health, moral character, and other factors Insofar as Hispanic youth differ from other groups in terms of these factors, they will be disqualified at different rates 1 The figures on enlistments are based on the... x Military Enlistment of Hispanic Youth: Obstacles and Opportunities 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13 6.14 6.15 6.16 6.17 Percentage of Males Failing to Meet Weight Standards of at Least One Branch 56 Percentage of Females Failing to Meet Weight Standards of at Least One Branch 56 Percentage of Males Failing to Meet Military. .. examine the effects of relaxing standards on military performance, we consider the downstream performance of military entrants who vary in terms of their quality and other characteristics Some of these entrants received waivers of the enlistment standards (e.g., the service may permit the enlistment of individuals who have disqualifying characteristics) Performance is measured in terms of the retention... Potential Hispanic Recruits Analysis of the NLSY data reveals that a relatively small percentage of youth, regardless of race or ethnicity, would qualify for military enlistment Figures S.1 and S.2 show the cumulative effect of key enlistment standards in the areas of education (high school diploma or General Education Degree), aptitude (Armed Forces Qualification Test score, [AFQT]), weight, number of dependents,... allowable weight MEPS Military Entrance Processing Station MK Mathematics Knowledge MOS Military Operational Specialty NELS National Educational Longitudinal Study NHIS National Health Interview Survey xxvii xxviii Military Enlistment of Hispanic Youth: Obstacles and Opportunities NLSY National Longitudinal Survey of Youth PC paragraph comprehension RMC regular military compensation TABE Test of Adult Basic... of key demographic groups, including Hispanics The underrepresentation of Hispanics is puzzling, considering that survey data on young people’s attitudes toward the military consistently indicate that Hispanic youth are more likely than other groups to express a positive attitude toward the military For example, in the December 2007 poll of American youth ages 18 to 24 conducted by the Department of. .. difference in the probability of combat assignment for blacks versus whites 3 An excellent discussion of the history of blacks in the military as the U.S switched from conscription to the AVF is given in Binkin and Eitelberg (1982) 1 2 Military Enlistment of Hispanic Youth: Obstacles and Opportunities percent of the 18- to 24-year-old civilian population for blacks and Hispanics, respectively Thus, . underrepresentation of Hispanic youth among military
enlistments. To help policymakers evaluate the feasibility of improving Hispanic enlistments
by recruiting. THREE
Enlistment Qualifications 21
Data
21
Caveats
22
Organization
23
Hispanics in the Census and NLSY97
23
vi Military Enlistment of Hispanic Youth:
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