Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume 2 - Oceania - G ppsx

... and 320 centimetersperyear.TotheeastlivetheChuaveandSiane,andtothenorthlivetheBundh of theupperjimiValley.Inmanywayscultur-allyverysimilartotheChimbuaretheKuma(MiddleWahgi)peoplelivingtothewest.South of theChimbuinthelowerWahgiandMarigIvalleysareGuminepeoples,andfarthersouthareloweraltitudeareas,lightlysettledbyPawaiaandMikaru(Daribi)speakers.Demography.Approximately180,000peopleliveinthe6,500squarekilometers of SimbuProvince. Of those,morethanone-thirdliveinthetraditionalhomelandareas of theKuman-speakingChimbu.Inmost of thenorthernareas of theprovince,populationdensitiesexceed150personspersquarekilometer,andinsomecensusdivisionspopulationdensitiesexceed300personspersquarekilometer.LinguisticAffiliation.Kumanandrelatedlanguages(SinaSina,Chuave,Gumine)arepart of theCentralFamily of theEastNewGuineaHighlandsStock of Papuanlanguages.HistoryandCulturalRelationsLittlearchaeologicalevidenceexistsfortheChimbuareaproper,butdatafromotherhighlandareassuggestoccupa-tionaslongas30,000yearsago,possiblywithagriculturede-veloping8,000yearsbeforethepresent.Itisbelievedthattheintroduction of thesweetpotato(lpomoeabaratas)about300yearsagoallowedforthecultivation of thisstaplefoodathigheraltitudeswithasubsequentincreaseinthepopulation of thearea.Oraltraditionsplacetheorigin of theChimbuatWomkamaintheChimbuValley,whereasupernaturalmanchasedawaythehusband of theoriginalcouplelivingintheareaandfatheredtheancestors of thecurrentChimbutribalgroups.FirstWesterncontactoccurredin1934whenanex-pedition,ledbygoldminerMichaelLeahyandAustralianpa-trolofficerJamesTaylor,passedthroughthearea,andsoonafterwardanAustraliangovernmentpatrolpostandRomanCatholicandLutheranmissionswereestablished.Theinitialyears of colonialadministrationweremarkedbyeffortstocurtailtribalfightingandestablishadministrativecontrolinthearea.Limitedgovernmentresourcesandstaffmadethisgoaldifficult,andbythebeginning of World War11onlyatenuouspeacehadbeenimposedinparts of Simbu.Follow-ingthewar,Australianeffortstoextendandsolidifyadminis-trativecontrolcontinued,localmenwererecruitedaslabor-ersforcoastalplantations,andcoffeewasintroducedasacashcrop.Establishment of electedlocalgovernmentcoun-cilsafter1959wasfollowedbyrepresentation of theareainaterritorial(laternational)legislativebodyandbythecreation of aprovinciallegislature.Localtribalpoliticsremainimpor-tantandtribalaffiliationgreatlyinfluencestheparticipationinthesenewpoliticalbodies.SettlementsIncontrasttohighlandareastotheeast,KumanChimbudonotarrangetheirhousesintovillagesbutratherhaveadis-persedsettlementpatternTraditionally,menlivedinlargemen'shousessetonridgesforpurposes of defense,apartfromwomen,girls,andyoungboys.Eachmarriedwomanandherunmarrieddaughters,youngsons,andthefamily'spigslivedinahousethatwassituatedsomedistancefromthemen'shouseandinornearthefamily'sgardens.Bysituatingtheirhousesnearthegardens,womenwereabletoremainclosetotheirworkandbettermanagetheirpigs,afamily'sgreatesteconomicasset.Althoughthishousingpatternstillexiststosomeextent,reductioninthesegregation of thesexes,reducetionintribalfighting,andeconomicdevelopmenthavere-sultedinmoremenlivingwiththeirfamiliesinhousesthatarelocatednearcoffeegardensandroads.MostChimbuhousesareovalorrectangular,withdirtfloors,lowthatchedroofs,andwallswovenfromflattenedreeds.EconomySubJsstenceandCommercialActivities.TheprimarysubsistencecropinSimbuisthesweetpotato.Growninfencedandtilledgardens,sometimesonslopesassteepas450,sweetpotatoesprovidefoodforbothpeopleandpigs.Sweetpotatoesarethemainfoodateverymeal,comprisingabout75percent of thediet.Over130sweetpotatocultivars,orvarieties,aregrownindifferentmicroenvironmentsandfordifferentpurposes.Sweetpotatogardensareusuallymadeingrassorforestfallowareasbydiggingditchesinagridworkpatterntoformacheckerboardlikepattern of mounds3to4squaremetersinsizeonwhichvinecuttingsareplanted.Gar-densareplantedthroughouttheyear,withimpendingre-quirementsforfood,suchastheneedformoresweetpotatoesforupcomingfoodexchangesandincreasedpigherds,influ-encingplantingasmuchasclimateseasonality.Inadditiontosweetpotatoes,othercropsgrownforconsumptionincludesugarcane,greens,beans,bananas,taro,andnutandfruitva-rieties of pandanus.Pigsarebyfarthemostimportantdomes-ticatedanimaltotheChimbuandarethesupremevaluable,sacrificedtotheancestorsinpre-Christiantimesandblessedbeforeslaughtertoday.Pigs,killedandcooked,arethemainitemusedinthemanyceremonialexchangesthatarecrucialtocreatingandcementingthemanysocialrelationshipsbe-tweenindividuals.Bygivingpartnerspork,vegetables,money,andpurchaseditems(suchasbeer)thecontributorscreateadebtthatthereceiversmustrepayinthefutureinordernottolosevaluedprestige.Theseexchangesoccuratvarioustimes,forvariousreasons-forexample,tocelebratemarriage,tocompensateforinjuryordeath,ortothankawife'snatalkIngroupforthechildrenbornintothehus-band'sclan.Byfarthelargest of theseexchangeceremoniesisthepigceremony(buglaingu),atwhichhundredsoreventhousands of pigsareslaughtered,cooked,anddistributedtofriendsandaffinesatthefinalclimax of events.Moneyhasbecomeanincreasinglyimportantitemexchangedintheseceremonies.Formostrurdpeople,moneyisprimarilyearnedthroughthegrowing of coffeeinsmall,individuallycon-trolledgardens.Inadditiontocoffee,moneyisacquiredthroughtheselling of vegetablesinlocalmarketsand,forasmallminority,throughwageemployment.IndustrialArtsandTrade.Crafts of clothingandtoolmakingarenowlargelyabandoned,theirproductsreplacedwithitemsmanufacturedbeyondthelocalcommunitiesandpurchasedinstores.AUsubsistencework,beforecontact,re-liedupontheskillfuluse of localwoods,fibers,canes,stoneandbonematerials,andafewtradeitems.Ingeneral,menmadethewoodentoolsandweaponsandconstructedfencesChoiseulIsland37riagescontractedbetweenmembers of differentclansandtribesarefundamentalinestablishingpoliticalandeconomicrelationshipsbeyondthelocalleveLPoliticalOrganization.Intraditionaltimesthetribewasthelargestpoliticalunit,butparliamentarydemocracy,beguninthelate1950sandearly1960s,createdconstituenciesmuchlargerthanthetraditionalkin-basedpoliticalunits,buttheinfluence of smalllocalgroupscenteredonleaders,called"big-men,"hasnotdiminished.Thesemenareinfluentialinorganizingceremonialexchanges of foodandmoney,aswellasrallyingsupportforthecandidacies of thosestandingforelection.Typicallymorethanonemanfromeachtribalgroupstandsinelections,fracturingsupportamongmanylocalcan-didatesandallowingthesuccessfulcandidatetowinwithoftenlessthan10percent of thetotalvotes.Inmanywaysmodemparliamentarypoliticshasnotincreasedthescale of Chimbupoliticalgroups-evennational-levelpoliticianscangainofficewithafollowingnotmuchlargerthanthosesup-portingsometraditionalleadersinthepast.SocialControlandConflict.Althoughthepossibility of violence,betweenfamilymembersaswellasbetweenlargetribalgroups,servestocontrolpeople'sactions,mediationbythirdparties,oftenpoliticallyimportantmen,ismoreoftenusedtopreventorresolvedisputes.Accusations of witchcraftarealsoleviedagainstthosewhoareperceivedtobethreaten-ingagnaticgroupstrength,usuallyagainstwomen,whomarryintothegroupandareseensometimestohavedividedloyal-ties.Warfareoccursbetweendifferenttribesandoccasionallybetweenclanswithinatribe.Traditionally,therelationsbe-tweentribeswerecharacterizedbyapermanentstate of en-mity,whichservedasanimportantcontributingfactortotheunity of atribe.Inthedecadesfollowingcolonialcontactwar-fareatfirstdiminished,onlytoreappearinthe1970s.Al-thoughtheincidence of warfareisrelatedtocompetitionoverscarceland,oftentheincidentthatprecipitatesfightingisadisputeoverwomen,pigs,orunpaiddebts.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.TheindigenousChimbureligionhadnoorganizedpriesthoodorworship.Thesunwasseenasamajorspirit of fertility.Supernaturalbeliefandceremoniesconcentratedonappealingtoancestralspiritswho,ifpla-catedthroughthesacrifice of pigs,werebelievedtoprotectgroupmembersandcontributetothegeneralwelfare of theliving.Althoughmanytraditionalsupernaturalbeliefsstillexist,variousChristiansectsclaimthemajority of Chimbusasmembers.Ceremonies. Of themostimportanttraditionalceremo-nies,initiation of boysintothemen'scultisnolongerprac-ticed(havingbeenactivelydiscouragedbymissionaries);thelargepig-killingceremonies(buglaingu)arestillheldbutwithlessemphasisonthesacrificing of pigstoancestralspirits.Arts.Thevisualartsareconcentratedonbodydecorationwithshells,feathers,wigs,andfacepaintbeingwornattimes of ceremonialimportance.Songs,poetry,drama,andstoriesareimportantasforms of entertainmentandeducation.Mu-sicalinstrumentsincludetwotypes of bambooflutes,woodenandskin-covereddrums,andbambooJew'sharps.Medicine.Illnessandsuddendeathareattributedtowitchcraft,sorcery,andtransgression of supernaturalsanc-tions.Therewasaverylimitedtraditionalherbalmedicaltechnology,butformostillnessesthepeoplenowmakeuse of thegovernmentmedicalaidpostsandhospitals.DeathandAfterlife.AlthoughChristianbeliefshavemodifiedtraditionalbeliefs,itisstillthoughtbymanythatafterdeathone'sspiritlingersneartheplace of burial.Deathscausedbysorceryorwarthatarenotrevengedresultinadan-gerous,discontentedspiritthatcancausegreatharmtotheliving.Chimbustoriesarerepletewithaccounts of deceivingghosts.SeealsoDarbi,Gururumba,Melpa,SianeBibliographyBergmann,W.(1971).TheKamanuku.4vols.Mutdapilly,Australia:TheAuthor.Brookfield,Harold,andPaulaBrown(1963).StruggleforLand:AgricultureandGroupTerritoriesamongtheChimbu of theNewGuineaHighlands.Melbourne:OxfordUniversityPress.Brown,Paula(19 72) .TheChimbu:AStudy of ChangeintheNewGuineaHighlands.Cambridge,Mass.:Schenkman.Nilles,J.(194 3-1 944;194 4-1 945).'Natives of theBismarckMountains,NewGuinea." Oceania 14:10 4- 123 ;15: 1-1 8.Nilles,J.(195 0-1 951).'TheKuman of theChimbuRegion,CentralHighlands,NewGuinea." Oceania 21 :25 -6 5.Nilles,J.(195 3- 1954)."TheKumanPeople:AStudy of Cul-turalChangeinaPrimitiveSocietyintheCentralHighlands of NewGuinea." Oceania 24 :1 -2 7 ;11 9-1 31.Ross,1.(1965)."ThePubertyCeremony of theChimbuGirlintheEasternHighlands of NewGuinea."Anthropos60: 423 -4 32. KARLRAMBOANDPAULABROWNChoiseulIslandETHNONYMS:Lauru,RauruOrientationIdentification.ChoiseulIslandisthenorthwesternmostislandintheSolomonIslandschain of thewesternSouthPa-cific,lyingbetweenBougainvilleIslandandPapuaNewGuineatothewest,SantaIsabeltotheeast,andVellaLavellaandNewGeorgiatothesouth,all of whichare40to80kilo-metersdistant.36Chimbuandhouses; ... arecashincomesandde-siredcommodities(tobacco,tea,potsandpans,tools,rice,tinnedmeat).Thelocaleconomyisseverelydependentonfluctuationsinthe world marketforcopra.IndustrialArtsandTrade.Groundstoneandshelltoolswerereplacedearlyonbymetalaxesandsaws.Adistinctiveform of shell'money"knownaskesawasattributedamythi-calorigin,butothershellringsanddisksusedasmoneyorasornamentsweremanufacturedlocallyorwereimportedfromtheRovianaregiontothesouth.Division of Labor.Mostdomesticlaborwasandstillisdonebywomenandgirlswhodoalsomuch of theplanting,weeding,andharvesting of thecropsandthegathering of fire-wood.Menandboysdomost of thework of preparingthelandforplanting,gathermaterialsforhouses,andoccasion-allyhuntandfish.Menoccupyallpositions of publicsignifycance-villageheadman,preacher-teacher,officer of thelocal ... 38ChoiseulIslandLocation.Choiseulcoversanarea of 2, 100squarekilome-ters,isabout130kilometerslongand 12. 8to 32. 2kilometersacross,andisgenerallyamass of deepvalleysandsharp,jungle-cladridges,mostlybetween 24 3to606metersinele-vation(maximumelevation160meters).Averagedaytimecoastaltemperatureis 26 0to 32 C,andrainfallaverages 25 4to508centimetersperyear.Demography.In1956thenativeMelanesianpopulationwasabout5,700;intheearly1980sitwasestimatedtobe7,900.Itseemstobegrowingrapidlybecause of decreasedin-fantmortalityandincreasedlongevity,bothattributabletoimprovedhealthcare.LinguisticAffiliation.Thepeoples of ChoiseulspeakfourdifferentMelanesianlanguages,allmoresimilartoonean-otherthantothosespokenonadjacentislands.Dialectalvariationissmallexceptforthecentral-easternlanguage,whichhasthemostspeakersandthewidestdistribution.Ul-timately,thelanguages of Choiseul, of SantaIsabel,and of NewGeorgiaanditsneighborsformonesetthatisrelatedmostcloselytothelanguages of Bougainvilleand,throughthem,tothelanguages of theCentralandSouthernSolomons.HistoryandCulturalRelationsNoarchaeologicalworkhasbeendoneonChoiseul,butbasedonthelinguisticvariation,ithasbeenestimatedthattheislandhasbeenoccupiedforabout3,500years.ItwassightedbyEuropeanexplorersin1568andin1768butitwasnotuntilthelate1800sthatthepeoplehadsignificantcon-tactwithpersonsotherthantheinhabitants of theneighbor-ingislands,andtheirinteractionswiththelatterweretypi-callyhostileandviolent.Amajoreffect of contactwiththeoutside world wasunevenaccesstofirearms,andthatdevel-opmentincreasedthedeadliness of theintergroupconflictthatwasendemiconandbetweentheislands of theWesternSolomons.ChoiseulandotherislandsweretransferredfromtheGermantotheBritishcolonialspherein1899.Christianmissionariesthenbegantoworkthearea,andtheyfounditspeoplesreadyandmoreorlesswillingtobepacifiedandChristianized.OnChoiseul,intergroupwarfarecontinuedhereandthereintothe1 920 s,butwellbeforethebeginning of World War11theislandwasfullypacifiedandChristian-ized(indifferentareasbyMethodists,Catholics,andSeventh-DayAdventists).Otherforms of Europeanpenetra-tionsuchascoconutplantationshavebeenverylimitedandsporadic.FewJapaneseorAlliedtroopssetfootonChoiseul,soitwasonlyindirectlyaffectedbythe World WarII.TheSolomonsbecameanindependentnationin1978,butthathadlittleeffectonChoiseul,whichremainsisolatedandse-verelyunderdeveloped.SettlementsPriortopacificationandChristianization,thebulkof...

... tohousesandcanoes.ThebamboofluteandJew'sharpwereusedincourt-ship,anddancingtohanddrumsaccompaniedfeasting.Many of thedancesongstranslatedbyFortuneareremark-ablefortheirpathosandpoeticbeauty.Medicine.Illnessisalmostinvariablyattributedtosorcery,witchcraft,orthebreach of taboo;curinginvolvesthesettle-ment of grievances.Gingeristhemostcommonmagicalpro-phylacticandcuringagent.Manyotherplantsandherbsareused,buttheirpharmacologicalefficacyisdoubtfuLDeathandAftlife.Deathandmourningcontinuethecycle of affinalexchangesandfeasts.Thesurvivingspouse'svillagegivesyams,armshells,andapig(previously,ahumancaptive)tothevillage of thedeadspouse,whoisburiedbyhisorherownsusu.Afterayearthelatterreleasethewidoworwidowerfrommourning,andfollowingthisriteheorshemayneveragainenterthevillage of thedeceased.Largefeasts(sagali)areheldperiodicallyinhonor of thecollectivedead of avillage,atwhichpigsandyamsaredistributedtootherlo-calities.Thespirits of thedeadwenttoBwebweso,anextinctvolcanoonNormanbyIsland("Bwebweso'means"extin-guished").ItsportalswereguardedbySinebomatu(Woman of theNortheastWind)whoexactedapayment of betelnutsfromeachnewarrival.Thediseasedandthedeformedwereconsignedtoaswampatthefoot of Bwebweso.Thespirits of thoseslaininwaralsohadaseparateafterword.SeealsoGoodenoughIsland,TrobriandIslandsBibliographyBromilow,W.E.(1910).SomeMannersandCustoms of theDobuans of S.E.Papua.Brisbane:AustralasianAssociationfortheAdvancement of Science.Bromilow,W.E.(1 929 ).TwentyYearsamongPrinitivePapu-ans.London:Hodder&Stoughton.Fortune,ReoF.(19 32) .Sorcerers of Dobu.London:GeorgeRoutledge&Sons.Rev.ed.1963.NewYork:E.P.Dutton.Young,MichaelW.(1980)."ATropology of theDobuMis-sion."CanberraAnthropology3:8 6-1 04.MICHAELW.YOUNGDobu49DieriETHNONYMS:Dayerrie,Deerie,Diari,Dieyerie,Dieyrie,Diyeri,Dthee-eri,Koonarie,Kunari,Ti:ari,Urrominna,Wongkadieri,WonkadieriTheDieriareanAboriginalhuntingandgatheringpeople of southernAustralia'slakesregion,wholiveontheCooperRivertotheeast of LakeEyre.Theirpresentterritoryislo-catedat1390Eand 28 20 'S.Theirkinshipsystemissimilarinmanyrespectstothat of theAranda,butitdiffersontwosignificantcounts.First,theDieriuseasingletermforbothfather'smotherandfather'smother'sbrotherontheonehandandformother'sbrother's(orfather'ssister's)childrenontheother.Second,theDierilacktheArandiccharacteris-tic of applyingasingletermtobothmother'smotherandmother'sbrotherandtothemother'sbrother'schildren.In-stead,theDiericlassmother'smother'sbrother'sson'schil-drenwithdirectsiblings(i.e.,withbrothersandsisters).WithintheDierisystem,marriageispreferredwiththemoth,er'smother'sbrother'sdaughter'sdaughter(i.e.,thechildren of twowomenrelatedtooneanotherascrosscousinsarethepreferredmarryingpair).Directcross-cousinmarriage,how-ever,isconsideredunacceptable(thoughspecialcircum-stanceshavebeeninvokedtovoidthisprohibition).Amalechildinheritsfromhisfatheratotemicrelationshipwithaparticularnaturalspecies of theareatowhichthefatherhim-selfisattachedbydescentandusage.Withinthisareaisato-temiccenterwithwhichatotemicbeing(mura-mura)isassociated-one of severalcultureheroesthoughttohavetraveledfromsouthwesternQueenslandtothecurrentDieriterritory.Aboylearnstheloreandrituals of thistotemiccen-terfromhisfatherandothereldermales of hisfather'sline.Thispatrilinealtotemisticheritageissimilartothatreportedforpeoples of theWesternDesertregion of Australia.Cross-cuttingthispatrilinealtotemicsystemisonethatisderivedmatrilineally,whichappearstoserveprimarilytoestablishwife-giverandwife-takercategoriesbutwhichalsoinvolvesfoodtaboosandpermitsamaletoparticipateinsomerituals of hismother'sbrother'sclan.Initiationisanongoingproc-essforyoungDierimen,culminatinginaritualknownaswilyaru,whichinvolvesscarification of theinitiates.SeealsoArandaBibliographyElkin,A.P."TheSocialOrganization of SouthAustralianTribes." Oceania 2: 4 4-7 3.Radcliffe-Brown,A.R.(1930)."TheSocialOrganization of AustralianTribes,PartI." Oceania 1:3 4-6 3.Radcliffe-Brown,A.R.(1930)."TheSocialOrganization of AustralianTribes,PartII." Oceania 1: 322 -3 41.DobuETHNONYM:EdugauraOrientationIdentification.Dobu(GoulvainIslandontheearliestmaps)isasmallisland(3 .2 by4.8kilometers),anextinctvol-cano.Itisalsothename of thelanguage of itsinhabitantsand,moregenerally, of thosespeakers of thesamelanguageinneighboringareas.TheanthropologistBronislawMali-nowskidescribedDobuansasa"tribe,"implyingalinguistic,cultural,andevenpoliticalentity,butthiswidersense of "Dobuan"waslargelyaconstruct of thefirstmissionaries.Location.DobuIslandissituatedinDawsonStrait(9.45°Sand150.50°E),whichseparatesthelargemountainousis-lands of FergussonandNormanbyintheD'EntrecasteauxArchipelago of MilneBayProvince,PapuaNewGuinea.DobuspeakersoccupysoutheasternFergusson,northernNormanby,andtheoffshoreislands of Dobu,Sanaroa,andTewara.Thenaturalvegetationislowlandrainforest,thoughmuch of thesettledareaiscoveredwithsecondaryforestorgrassland.Theregionistropicalwithtwomainseasons:thesoutheasterlywindsdominatetheyear(MaytoNovember),whilethenorthwestmonsoon(DecembertoApril)bringsheavysqualls.Averageannualrainfallisabout 25 4centime-ters,butdroughtsarenotinfrequent.Denography.Atthelastcensus ... therighttoshareinclanlandsandwealth.Thegarden of adeceasedpersongoestothesurvivingspouseorgardeningpartner,rightsinbearingtreesareinheritedpatrilineally.Socialization.Achildisnotpunishedforitsactsbeforeitisfelttoberational,thatis,beforeit"hasasoul"andcanspeak.Malechildrenaresocializedbypeersandbyparticipa-tioninmaleactivities,femalechildrenthroughtheirinvolve-mentinwomen'sgardeningandchild-rearingwork.48DaribiSociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Collectiveactivities,meetingsandarbitration,workgroups,andwarfareandvengeanceunder-takingshaveinthepastservedasactivefociforlineal,fac-tional,andcoresidentialgroupings.Often,butnotnecessar-ily,suchtaskgroupingscoincidewiththeclanorevenacoresidentialclustering of clans.Beforetheinstitution of centralizedadministrativecontrol,cooperativeparties of menorganizedthemselvesinthiswaytoclearlargetracts of landforgardeningorformilitaryaction.Influentialmen,oftentheeldest of agroup of brothers,taketheinitiativeinplanningandsupervisingcollectivetasks,morethroughtheexhorting of othersthanactualdirection.Kinrelationshipisoftenthestrongestormostconsistentsinglefactorinthegalvanizing of theseactivities,thoughitisbynomeanstheonlyone.PoliticalOrganization.Acoresidentialgrouping of thedimensions of aclanorvillagepredictablydivides,atanygiventime,intotwoopposedfactions,roughlyalongthelines of kinaffiliationoraffinity.Themen of afactionarethehana,followersandsupporters of abig-manorsignificantleader(genuaibidi).Suchleaderswouldoftenbidforthepa-tronage of youngermenbytransferringbetrothalstothemorbyfeedingthemwiththesurplusmealsreceivedeachdayfromtheirpluralities of wives.SocialControl.Body-substancesorcery(animani)andse-cretmurderthroughsorceryassassination(keberebidi)wereoftenresortedtoforvengeance;perhapsthethreat of theseactionshelpedtoensuresocialcompliance.Certainlythemosteffectiveinstrument of socialcontrolis"talk,"thatis,publicapprovalanddisapproval,anorgan of consensualen-forcementthathasbeenamplifiedbythevillage-courtsystem.Conflict.Bouts of hystericalpublicanger,oftenescalat-ingintofactionalconfrontations,markthestressesandstrains of ordinaryvillagelife.Ifaggravatedoveralongper-iodtheymayleadtoresidentialsplittingalongfactionallines."Thirdparties,"eitherleadersoradjacentgroups,willoftentrytomediatethesefights.Traditionalwarfaretooktheform of ambushes,skirmishesalongboundaries,sieges,andoccasionalmassacresbyorganizedgroupings of clansactinginconcert.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.Whetherornottheybelieveinthem,andincidentaltoanyprofession of areligiousfaith,Daribifearthedispleasure,attack,orpossession of ghosts(izibidi)and,perhapslessfrequently, of "placespirits"-localbeingsdwellingbeneaththeground,inravines,orintrees.Ghosts,mostlikelythose of friendsorrelatives,arethoughttotakeactionagainstthosewhobetraythem,andplacespiritsagainstthosewhoviolatetheirhabitations.ReligiousPractitioners.TraditionalDaribireligiousprac-titionersincludespiritmediums,definedas"ill"becausetheyhaveaninsecurerelationtopossessingghosts,andshamans(sogoyezibidi),whohave"died"andattainedacompleterap-portwiththeirspirits.Sincemostforms of mentalandphysi-calillnesstraditionallywereconsideredtobeeffects of spiritpossession,shamansfunctionedaseffectivecurersandchargedfortheirserviceseveninprecontacttimes.Thelargemajority of bothkinds of practitionersarewomen.Ceremonies.Themajortraditionalriteisthehabu,per-formedto"bringbacktothehouse"theghost of someonewhohasdiedunmournedinthebush.Inthehabu,youngmenare"possessed"bythealienatedghostandspendweeksintheforesthuntinganimalsandsmokingthemeat.Whentheyreturntothehousetheybringtheghost"ontheirskins,"anditmustbedislodgedbywrestlingwiththe"housepeo-ple,"afterwhichthemeatisblamedfortheghost'shostilityandconsumedasamortuaryfeast.Otherritesincludethose of marriage,initiation,andthepigfeast,introducedfromthehighlands.Arts.Depictiveincisiononarrowshaftsandotherimple-mentsispracticed.Daribiexpressthemselvesmusicallywiththeflute,theJew'sharp,andmourninglaments.Storytelling(namupusabo)isthebest-developedartisticmedium,alongwithlyricpoetry.Medicine.Inadditiontoshamaniccurers,traditionalmedicineincludedherbalremediesandasurgicalpractitioner(bidiegabobidi)whoremovedarrowsthroughaskilledknowl-edge of bodymovements.DeathandAfterlife.TraditionalDaribiadmittedhumanmortalitybutdenieddeaththroughnaturalcauses.Thedeadarebelievedtosurviveasghostswhocommunicatewiththelivingthroughspiritmediumsandshamansandwhotravel,usuallyatnight,alongwatercourses.Theylivetogetheratanill-definedplacetothewest,possiblyinalake.SeealsoChimbuBibliographyHide,RobinL,editor(1984).SouthSimbu:StudiesinDe-mography,Nutrition,andSubsistence.Boroko,PapuaNewGuinea:Institute of AppliedSocialandEconomicResearch.Hughes,IanM.(1970).'Pigs,Sago,andLimestone."Man-kind7 :27 2 -2 7 8.Wagner,Roy(1967).TheCurse of Souw.Chicago:University of ChicagoPress.Wagner,Roy(19 72) .Habu.Chicago:University of ChicagoPress.Wagner,Roy(1978).LethalSpeech.Ithaca,N.Y.:CornellUniversityPress.Weiner,JamesF.,editor(1988).MountainPapuans.AnnArborUniversity of MichiganPress.ROYWAGNERDobu51MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Marriageisforbiddenbetweentheowningsusu of avillageandbetweencrosscousins;thusvillagesareexogamous,thoughlocalitiestendtobeendogamous.Pre-maritalsexispermittedandadolescentpromiscuityisthenorm,thoughtheanthropologistReoFortunecharacterizedDobuansasprudishinspeechandpublicbehavior.Abe-trothedcoupleworkhardforayearfortheirrespectivein-laws.Marriageismarkedbyaseries of exchanges of cookedanduncookedfood,pork,fish,andgamebetweenthecon-tractingvillagesandbyagift of armshellsfromthegroom'stothebride'sgroup.Intervillageexchangesalsooccurannuallyinthename of eachmarriedcouple.Ideally,marriageex-changesbalanceinthelongrun.Monogamywasthenormandpolygynywaspracticedbyonlyafewwealthymen(esa'esa).Dobuisrenownedforthepractice of biocalresi-denceinwhichacouplelivealternately,forayearatatime,inthevillage of eachspouseinturn.Affinesshowgreatrespecttovillageowners,butfrictionbetweentheowningsusuandincomingspousesgivesrisetoquarreling,village'incest,"andattemptedsuicide.Fortuneregardedthepractice of bilocalresidenceasacompromisebetweenthedemands of thesusuandthose of theconjugalunit,thoughhejudgeditmorede-structive of thelatter.DivorceisveryfrequentinDobu.Bromilowlistedtwenty-tworeasonsfordivorce(including"filthylanguage"),butFortuneaccountedthecommonestcausetobe"cut-and-runadultery"withavillage"sister"or'brother."Affinesarefearedasikelywitchesandsorcerers.Intherevisededition of hisbookFortuneofferedanotherin-terpretation of bilocalresidence,statingthatitisassociatedwithanannualexchange of yamsforarmshellsbetweenresi-dentsusuwivesandtheirnonresidenthusbands'sisters.DomesticUnit.Thehouseholdnormallycomprisesamar-riedcoupleandtheiryoungchildren.Adolescentgirlsremainwiththeirparentsuntilmarriage,butatpubertyboysgotosleepelsewhere,usuallywiththegirls of neighboringvillages.Afteraman'sdeathhischildrenareprohibitedfromenteringhisvillage.Inheritance.Villageland,fruittrees,andmostgardenlandsareinheritedmatrilineally.Thecorpseandskull of apersonbelongtothesusu,asdopersonalnames.Canoes,fishingnets,stoneblades,ornamentalvaluables,andotherpersonalpropertyalsodescendwithinthesusu.Magic,how-ever,canpassfromafathertoone of hissons(aswellas ... theWesternDanire-gion,andtheJale,orEasternDani,gottheirstonesfromevenfurthereast.Othertoolsweremadelocally.Theymadenopotteryorbarkcloth.Gourdswereusedforwatercontainersandalsoforpeniscovers.Stringrolledfromtheinnerbark of localbusheswasusedextensivelytomakecarryingnets,wom-en'sskirts,andornaments.RattantorsoarmorforprotectionagainstarrowswasmadebyWesternDanibuttheGrandVal-leyDanineithermadeitnortradedforit.Spearsandbowsandarrowsweretheweapons of war.Thearrowswereun-fletched,withnotched,barbed,anddirtied(butnotpoi-soned)tips.Bythe1980s,cloth,metalaxes,knives,andshovels,aswellasthedetritus of modemlife-cast-offtincansandplasticbottles-hadpartiallyreplacedtraditionalDanicrafts.Trade.Evenbeforecontact,variousseashelltypeshadbeentradedupfromthecoasts of theislandintotheentireDaniarea.Axstonesandflatslateceremonialstones,bird of paradisefeathers,cassowary-featherwhisks,andspearwoodsweretradedintotheGrandValleyinexchangeforpigsandsaltproducedfromlocalbrinepools.Division of Labor.Genderandagearethemajorbasesfordivision of labor.Therearenofull-timespecialists;butthereissomespare-timespecialization.Afewpeopleareknownasexpertarrowmakersorcurers.Generally,mendotheheavyworkliketillinggardensorbuildinghouses,whilewomendothetediousworklikeplanting,weeding,harvest-ing,andcarryingthatchgrass.Menweavethetightshellbandsusedinceremonies,womenmakecarryingnets,andbothmakestring.Because of theveryrelaxedatmospherebetweenmenandwomen,thereislittleactivitytotallyhid-denfromeithersex.LandTenure.Quiteinformalusagerightsaretherule.Al-thoughthereislittleornopopulationpressureintheGrandValley,theextensivelyditchedsweetpotatogardensonthebroadvalleyfloordorepresentquiteaconsiderablelaborin-vestment,butevenso,rightsarecasuallyandinformallytransferred.Largegardenareasareusuallyfarmedbymen of asinglesiborasingleneighborhood.Fieldsarecontrolledbymen,notwomen.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.TheGrandValleyDanihaveexogamouspatrilinealmoietiesandexogamouspatrilinealsibs.SomesibnamescanbefoundalsoingroupsoutsidetheGrandValleyandtherearehints,perhapsremnants, of amoietysysteminWesternDani.IntheGrandValley,peoplearebornintothesib of theirfather,butatbirthallGrandValleyDaniareconsideredtobe of thewidamoiety.Beforemarriage,thosewhosefathersare of thewaryamoiety'be-comewaiya,"theboysthroughaninitiationceremony,thegirlswithoutceremony.Thechieffunction of themoietiesistoregulatemarriage.Sibsareassociatedwithoneortheothermoiety,neverboth.Therearesib-specificbirdtotemsandfoodtaboos.Localsegments of sibskeeptheirsacredobjectsincommon,storetheminthemen'shouse of themostim-portantman,andholdrenewalceremoniesfortheseobjects.GrandValleyDaniarenotmuchconcernedwithtracingge-nealogy.Commonsibmembershipisassumedtomeancom-monancestry,butpeoplerarelyknowtheirancestorsmorethanacouple of generationsback.KinshipTerminology.TheDanihaveOmaha-typekin-shipterminology.MarrageandFamilyMarriage.Weddingstakeplaceonlyatthetime of thegreatpigfeast,whichisheldinanallianceareaeveryfourtosixyears.Moietyexogamyisinvariablyobserved.Marriagestendtotakeplacebetweenneighbors,ifnotwithinaneigh-borhoodatleastwithinaconfederation.Somemarriagesarearrangedbythefamilies,whileothersarelovematchesar-rangedbytheindividuals.Marriagebeginsaseries of rela-tivelyequalexchangesbetweenthetwofamilies,whichcon-tinuesforageneration,throughtheinitiationandmarriage of theresultingchildren.Theseexchangesconsist of pigs,cow-rieshellbands,andsacredslatestones.Immediatepostmar-italresidenceispatrilocal,althoughwithinafewyearsthecoupleislikelytobelivingneolocallywithintheneighbor-hoodorconfederationwherebothsets of parentslive.Di-vorceisfairlyeasy,butlong-termseparationismorecommon.Atearlystages of tension,thewife,orthejuniorwife,movesouttoanotherrelative'scompoundforatime.Nearlyhalfthemenareinvolvedinpolygynousmarriages.TheGrandValleyDanihaveremarkablylittleinterestinsexuality.Apostpar-tumsexualabstinenceperiod of aroundfiveyearsisgenerallyobservedbybothparents of achild.Theminority of menwhoareinvolvedinpolygynousmarriagesmayhavesexualaccesstoanotherwife,butformostmenandallwomentherearenoalternativeoutletsnoranyapparentincreasedlevel of stressforthosesubjecttotheabstinence.Ritualhomosexualityisabsent.Thisextraordinarilylongpostpartumsexualabsti-nencehasnotbeenreportedamongtheWesternDani.DomesticUnitItiseasytoidentifybothnuclearfamiliesandextendedfamilies,buttheseunitsareusuallylessimpor-tantthanthecompoundgroupasawhole.Inheritance.Thereislittlerealpropertytoinherit.Asboysgrowuptheyjoinwiththeirfathersinmaintainingthesacredobjectsheldbythelocalpatrilinealsibsegment.Inamoregeneralsense,sons-andtosomeextentdaughters -of thewealthierandmorepowerfulmenbenefitfromtheirfather'sposition.Socialization.Childrearingisverypermissive.Toilettrainingiscasual.Childrenarerarely,ifeverphysicallydisci-plinedandevenverbaladmonishmentisrare.Thereisalmostnoovertinstruction.Childrenlearnbyparticipatingbutnotbyaskingquestions.Sincethelate1960s,government-sponsoredschools,usuallyrunbymissionaries,havebeenteachingmoreandmoreDanichildrentoreadandwriteinIndonesian.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.IntheGrandValleythelargestterrntorialsociopoliticalunitisthealliance,withseveralthousandpeople.WarfareandthegreatpigfeastareorganizedattheDani45alliancelevel.Eachallianceiscomposed of severalconfedera-tions,whicharealsoterritorialunitscontainingfromseveralhundreduptoathousandpeople.Confederationsareusuallynamedforthetwosibswiththestrongestrepresentation.Manyceremonies,andtheindividualbattlesthatconstitutewarfare,areorganizedonaconfederationlevel,initiatedbytheconfederation-levelleaders.Withintheconfederationterritorythereareusuallyrecognizableneighborhoods,butthesearenottrue,functioningsocialunits.Contiguousclus-ters of compounds,alsomakingupphysicalunits,arenotso-cialunits.Eachindividualcompound,althoughlackingfor-malorganization,isthevenue of themostintensesocialinteraction.Moietiesandsibsarenonterritorial,unilinearde-scentgroupswhichcrosscuttheterritorialunits.Thetwomoieties,beingexogamous,arerepresentedineverycom-pound.Acouple of dozensibsmayberepresentedinacon-federation,eventhoughitisdominatedbymembers of onlyafewsibs.InDaniareasoutsidetheGrandValley,theconfed-erationisthelargestunitandalliancesareabsent.PoliticalOrganization.Danileadershipisrelativelyinfor-mal,vestedinnonhereditary"big-men"(thattermisusedinDani).Theleaders of theconfederationandthealliancearewellknown,buttheyarenotmarkedbyspecialattireorotherartifacts.Theyaremen of influence,notpower,andtheyemergeasleadersthroughconsensus.Leaderstakeresponsi-bilityformajorceremoniesandforinitiatingparticularbat-tles.Theleader of theallianceannouncesthegreatpigfeastanddirectsthefinalalliance-widememorialritual.Leadersarebelievedtohaveunusuallystrongsupernaturalpowers.SocialControLGrandValleyDanihavenoformaljudicialinstitutions,butleaders,usingtheirinfluence,canresolvedisputesuptotheconfederationlevel,assessingcompensa-tionforpigtheftandthelike.Butbeyondtheconfederation,evenwithinasinglealliance,disputesoftengounresolvedbe-causerarelydoesanyone'sinfluenceextendacrossconfedera-donboundaries.Normswerenotexpressedinexplicitformalstatements.NowtheIndonesianpoliceandarmyhavetakenoverdisputesettlement.Conflict.Untiltheearly1960s,interalliancewarfarewasendemicintheGrandValley.Eachalliancewasatwarwithoneormore of itsneighbors.Warsbrokeoutwhentheaccu-mutation of unresolveddisputesbecametoogreat.Awarcouldlastforadecade.Then,astheoriginalgrievancesbegantobeforgotten,fightingwouldslackoff.Atthatpointanalli-ancethathadbuiltupunresolvedinterconfederationgriev-ancescouldsplitapart,resultinginre-formation of alliancesandties,whether of waror of peace,betweenalliances.Theconfederationitselfremainedrelativelystable,butalliancegroupingsshifted.Itwastheritualphase of warthatlastedforyears.Oncebegun,itwasfueledbythebeliefthatghosts of thekilleddemandedrevenge.SincebothsideswereDani,withvirtuallythesameculture,andthesameghostbeliefs,thekillingwenton,backandforth.Intheritualphase of war,formalbattlesalternatedwithsurpriseraidsandambushesattherate of aboutoneincident...

... 54EasterIsland.sweetpotatoesbeingthemostimportant.Taro,yams,sugar-cane,bananas,gourds,turmeric,andarrowrootwerealsogrownwhileberriesandseabirdeggsweregathered.Fishpro-videdsomeprotein,althoughfishingwasneveramajorsub-sistenceactivity.EasterIslanderscontinuetofarmsmallplotstoday,althoughmaizeisnowthemajorcropandChileancui-sinehasreplacedthenativediet.Sincetheintroduction of sheepranching,sheepandcattleontheislandhavebeentheprimarysources of meat.Mostmaterialgoodsarenowob-tainedfromthestoreontheislandandfromtheChileangov-ernment.Inadditiontofarmingandfishing,EasterIslandersnowworkforthegovernment,inafewsmallbusinesses,andinthetouristindustry.IndustrialArts.EasterIslanderswerehighlyskilledstone-cuttersandstone-carvers,masons,woodcutters,andcanoemakers.Today,somecarvewoodimagesforthetouristtrade.Thestone-carvingtraditionhadalreadybeenabandonedatthetime of contact,thoughthelargestonestatuessurvivedanddrewtheattention of visitorstotheisland.EasterIsland-ersalsomadevariousutensils,implements,andtoolsfromstoneandwood,baskets,nets,mats,cordage,tapa(aclothmadefrombark),andbodyornaments.Trade.Because of theirisolation,EasterIslandersevi-dendydidnottradewithothergroupsinPolynesia.TherehasbeenconjecturethatsomecultureelementsdevelopedthroughcontactwithSouthAmerica,mostnotablythefacialimagesonthestonemonuments.Theseideasremainunproven.Division of Labor.Menwereresponsibleforplantingthegardens,fishing,andbuildingthestonestructures.Womenharvestedcropsandhandledmostdomesticchores.Therewasalsoaweil-definedoccupationalhierarchy,withexpertreciters of genealogiesandfolklore,stone-carvers,wood-carvers,andfishermenpaidfortheirserviceswithproduce.Stone-carverswereaprivilegedgroupwiththeroleandstatuspassedfromfathertoson.LandTenure.Intraditionaltimes,landwasownedbylineageswithdwellingandfarmplotsallotedtofamilies.Since1888Chilehasmaintainedownership of all of EasterIslandandhasrestrictedtheEasterIslanderstolandinandaroundHangoroa.Newlywedsaregivenafewacres of landfortheirusebytheChileangovernment.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Thepopulation of EasterIs-landwasdividedintotensubtribesorclans(mata),each of whichevidentlyoccupiedadistinctterritoryinprecontacttimes.Byhistorictimes,subtribemembersweremorewidelydispersedasaresult of exogamousmarriage,adoption,andcaptureduringwar.Thetenclansformedtwolargerdivisions,withonecontrollingthewesternhalfandtheothertheeast-ernhalf of theisland.KinshipTerminology.Traditionalkintermusagefol-lowedtheHawaiiansystem,whichhasbeenmodifiedovertimetoreflectchangesinfamilyorganization.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Intraditionaltimes,mostmarriagesweremo-nogamous,thoughsomewealthymenhadmorethanonewife.Marriagesweregenerallyarranged,withinfantbetrothalnotuncommon.Today,marriageisbyfreechoice,althoughthefathers of boththegroomandbrideareinvolvedinap-provingandmakingarrangementsforthemarriage.Mar-riagesaremarkedbythreeceremonies-acivilceremony,churchceremony,andalargefeasthostedbythegroom'sfather-reflectingthesurvival of atraditionalpractice.Uponmarriage,thecouplegenerallylivewithonefamilyortheotheruntilmaterialscanbeobtainedtobuildtheirownhome.Inthepast,manymarriagesendedindivorce,whichcouldbeinitiatedbyeitherpartyforvirtuallyanyreason.TheRomanCatholicchurchhasmadedivorcemoredifficultandlessfrequent.DomesticUnit.Inthepast,thebasicfamilyandresiden-tialunitwasthelaterallyextendedfamilycomposed of broth-ers,theirwives,andtheirchildren.Today,thenudearfamilyisthenorm,althoughotherrelativessuchasgrandparentsandbrothersmightalsobepresent.Inthepastandtoday,thefatherwastheauthorityfigure,althoughtodaythewife'sfa-therhasmorepowerthanthehusband'sfatherandason-in-lawwilloftenseekhisfather-in-law'sapprovalforeducationalandcareerdecisions.UnderChileaninfluence,therole of godparent(compadre)hasdeveloped,andgodparentsoftenplayaroleinchildrearing.Inheritance.Inthepastandtoday,bothmenandwomencouldinheritandbothmenandwomencouldleaveproperty.Socialization.Pubertyintraditionaltimeswasmarkedforboysandgirlsbysecludingthemonanislandforsomemonthsandthenholdinglargeseparatefeastsattheend of theseclusionperiod.Theseritesdisappearedlongago,andpubertyisnolongermarkedbyritual.TheChileangovern-mentprovidesaschoolforelementaryeducationandsomeEasterIslandersattendhighschoolinChile.SocialandPoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Inadditiontosocialdistinctionsbasedonkinship,EasterIslandtraditionallyhadfourdistinctsocialclasses:noblemen(anki);priests(ivi-atua);warriors(matatoa);andservantsandfarmers(kio).Therulerwasthemainhighchief(ariki-mau)whotracedhisstatustodescentfromHotu-matua,thefounder of theisland.Inreality,arikiwereinvestedwithconsiderablemanaandweresubjecttonu-meroustaboos,althoughtheyhadlittleactualpower.Littleisknownabouttheactivities of priests,astherolehaddisap-pearedbythetimemissionariesarrived.Kiowerewarcaptiveswhoworkedforothersorpaidtributeintheform of percent-age of theircrops.PoliticalOrganizato.Asnotedabove,thenominalrul-erscamefromthearikiclass,withsuccessiontotheposition of highchiefgoingtotheoldestsonatthetime of hismar-riage.However,sincethismarriagewasoftendelayedmanyyearsbeyondthat of mostEasterIslanders,chiefsoftenheldtheirpositionforsomeyears.Atthetime of sustainedcon-tact,warriorsweretheactualpoliticalleaders,reflectingalonghistory of fightingamongthesubtribesandthealmostcontinuousfightingthatfollowedthekidnapping of menin18 62. Today,theEasterIslandersaregovernedbyChile,withaChileangovernor,civilservice,andpoliceforceprovidingservices.EasterIslanderrepresentationisthroughthemayor of Hangoroa.56Eipodenareasandcoversthemountainsaboveabout 2, 400me-tersuptothetreelineat3,500meters.Annualrainfallin197 5-1 976was590centimeters,withrainmostlyfallingdailyintheafternoonsandevenings.Temperaturesrangefromabout1 1-1 3°to 21 -2 5 °C.Littleseasonalchangeistobeobserved,butthetime of flowering of aparticulartree(Eodiasp.)istakenbytheEipoasamarker of certainfeastsandotheractivities.In1976twosevereearthquakesde-stroyedlargeareas of gardenlandandsomevillages;itislikelythatsimilarcatastropheshaveoccurredinthepast.Demography.TheEiponumbereddoseto800peoplein1980;indicationsarethatthepopulationisgrowing.linguisticAffiliation.Eipo, of whichtherearethreedia-lects,isamember of theMekFamily of Non-Austronesianlanguages,clearlyseparatefromtheOklanguagestotheeast,theYaliandDanilanguagestothewest,andlanguagesspo-kentothenorthandsouth.Localpeopletraditionallyunder-stand-and,toalesserextent,speak-oneortwodialectsorlanguagesotherthantheirown.Childrenusuallylearntheirspeechfromtheirmothers(who,duetorules of exogamy,oftencomefromdifferentvalleys)andoftendonotadoptthedialectspokenbythemajorityinaparticularvillage.BahasaIndonesia,unknownbeforethe1970s,isslowlygaininggroundasalinguafranca.HistoryandCulturalRelationsNoarchaeologicaldataareavailablefortheMekregion,andethnohistoricsurveysaremissingaswell.Itisprobable,how-ever,thatparts of theMekareahavebeeninhabitedformanythousands of years.Linguisticandhistoricalresearchontheintroductionanddiffusion of tobaccoshowsthattheMek(andtheirOkneighborstotheeast)mayhavebeencentralinthisprocess,andcomparativestudiesonreligiousbeliefsprovethatimportantconcepts(e .g. ,that of amythicalances-tralcreator)havetraveledfromeasttowest.Whileitisun-knownasyetatwhattimethesweetpotato(lpomoeabatatas)wasintroduced,onecanconcludefromthesignificance of taro(Colocasiaesculenta)inallceremonialreligiouscontextsthatthislatterfoodplantwas of vitalimportanceinpre-Ipomoeantimes.ThefirstknowncontactbyoutsiderswithMekpeopleswasmadebyateam of Dutchsurveyorsearlyinthiscentury;theymetagroup of peoplenearMountGoliathinthesouth of theareaandreportedthefirstrecordedwords of aMeklanguage.Someothergroupswerecontactedin1959inthecourse of aFrenchexpeditionacrossWestNewGuinea.Itsleader,PierreGaisseau,laterreturnedwithafilmteamandIndonesianmilitarypersonnelin1969,parachutingintothesouthernEipoValleywheretheyconductedasmallbutsoundsurveyontheareaandthepeople.Members of aninterdisciplinaryGermanresearchteamconductedresearchintheEipoValleyandsomeadjacentareasbetween1974and1980.SettlementsThevillages of theEipoandtheirneighborsintheMekareahave30 -2 5 0inhabitantsandareusuallybuiltonspotsthatfacilitatedefense.Oneormorecircularmen'shouses(whichoftenhavesacredfunctions)occupyconspicuousplaces,ei-therinthecenterorattheend of thevillage.Themuchsmallerandlesswell-builtfamilyhouses,also of circularshapebutsometimeswithrectangularroofs,arethelocationsforfamily-centeredactivities.Womenstayinseclusionhouses,usuallysituatedattheperiphery of thevillage,duringmenstruation,childbirth,andpuerperium,andsometimesduringseriousillnessesandforsanctuary.Allmen'shousesandmostfamilyhouseshaveelevatedfloorsandacentralfireplace.Protectionagainstthecold of thenightisnotveryadequate.Duetomissioninfluence,whichchieflyemploysDanievangelistsandteachers,Danihousestylesarebecom-ingfashionable.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.TheEipoandtheMekingeneralareskillfulhorticulturalistsandmaketheirgardensinvariousplaces:sometimesonsteepself-drainingmountainslopes,butalsoinflat,wetareaswhereditchingandbuildingmoundsareparticularlyimportantforthemainstaplecrop,sweetpotatoes.Mulchingiswidespread.Fallowperiodsarefifteenyearsormore;sufficientregeneration of thesoilisjudgedbythesize of atree(Trematomentosa)thatsoonstartstogrowinoldgardens.Numerousvarieties of taro,some of whichreachconsiderablesizeandweight,arealsocultivated.Theyarereservedforceremonies,especiallyfeastsforguests.Othercultigensincludeleafygreens(whichcon.tributemost of thevegetableprotein,especiallyformen),ba-nanas,sugarcane,ediblepitpit,nativeasparagus(Setariapalmifolia),variouspandanusspecies,andotherwildfoods.Beans,cheyote(Secchiumedule),cucumbers,maize,cassava,andpeanutshavebeenintroducedandsuccessfullyculti-vated.Thefewdomesticatedpigsdonotcontributemuchtothediet,onlyaboutonegramperdayperson;theyarecare-fullyraisedandusuallyusedonlyinceremonialcontexts.Smallmarsupialsaresnaredorhunted,oftenwiththehelp of dogs,buthuntingisdonemoretosatisfyemotionalneedsthantoprovidemeat.Womenandgirlsobtainvaluableani-malproteinintheform of frogs,tadpoles,lizards,snakes,spi-ders,andotherinsectsaswellastheeggsandlarvae of theseanimals.Traditionandreligioustaboosreservethesefoodsaswellasmost of thebirdspeciesforinfants,girls,andwomen.Inthepastdecade,theEipohavebecomedependentonmis-sionstationsassources of modemtools,clothing,tinnedfood,andothergoods,whicharepurchasedwithmoneyre-ceivedfromsellingservicesorproductstothemission.IndustrialArts.Thematerialcultureispoor,evencom-paredtootherhighlandsgroups,andwhenresearchwasbegunin1974,theEipoandmany of theirneighborswerestillusingstone,bone,andwoodentools.Theirworldlybe-longingsincludestringbags,bows,arrows,stoneadzes,stoneknivesandscrapers,woodendiggingsticks,boars'tusksandmarsupialteethusedascarvingtools,bonedaggersandawls,lianasforstartingfiresbyfriction,bambooorcalabashcon-tainersforwater,penisgourdsforthemen,andgrassskirtsforgirlsandwomen.TheMekcookinhotashes,bamboocon-tainersovertheopenfire,orinearthovensforlargergroups of people,especiallyguests.Trade.TheEipoandotherMekgroupsmayseemself-sufficientnow,buttraditionallytheyreliedonvariousgoodsfromtheoutside.Unpolishedstoneadzebladeswerepro-ducedbyspecialistsintheHeimeValleyandexchangedmainlyforstringbagsandgardenproducts.Otheritemsthat58Eipovillagecommunitiesaspersonswhotakeinitiative,pursueplans,andrespectrulesandtraditions,thoughtheyalsousethemtotheiradvantage.Inthisprotomeritocracy,leadershipisdependentontheactualpower of theleader.Personswhoshowsigns of losingtheircapacitieslosetheirpositions,too.Inheritance of big-manstatusfromfathertosonisnotinsti-tutionalized,butitsometimesoccursdefacto.SocialControl.Big-menexerciseacertainamount of so-cialcontrol,butmoreimportantistheprocess of enforcingsocialnormsthroughpublicopinion.Thisprocess,intum,iseffectedthroughgossip,discussion of disputedissues,andtheuse of extrahumanpowersinblackmagicallegedlyper-formedbyfemaleormalewitches.Theinfliction of illnessthusfunctionsaspunishmentforsocialwrongdoing.Conflict.DespitethefactthattheEipoareusuallyfriendlyandcontrolled,thepotentialforaggressiveactsisquitehighanddoesnotneedmuchtriggering.Untilrecently,inbothin-traalliancefightsandinteralliancewarfare,approximately 3-4 personsper1,000inhabitantsdied of violenceperyear.Verbalquarrelsandphysicalattackswithsticks,stoneadzes,andarrowswastheusualsequence of escalationleadingtofightsinthevillage.Neighborsinadjacentvalleyssometimeswerehereditaryenemieswhofoughtwarsthatwerelessritua-lized(andthereforelesscontrolled)thantheintraalliancefights;inthepasttheseconflictsoccasionallyledtocannibal-ism.Formalpeaceceremoniesendedthesewarsforperiods of monthsoryears.Warfareagainstideologicallydefinedanddehumanized"others"increasedone'sownsense of identityandstrengthenedbondswithinthegroup.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBelief.Thevisible world isconsideredtobein-habitedbynumerous,usuallymonstrous,beings:souls of thedeceased,zoomorphicspirits of theforestsandrivers,andpowerfulshapers of natureandbringers of culturewho,sincemythicaltimes,haveinfluencedthelife of people.Yaleenye(anamethatmeans'theonecomingfromtheeast")isthemostprominentsuchculturehero.Mythicalpowers,symbolizedbyholyrelics,weretraditionallyhousedandhonoredinsacredmen'shouses.Variousceremoniesthatpervadedeverydaylifewereperformedtoensurethewell-being of humans,domesticanimals,andfoodplants.FundamentalistChristianityhasreplaced-sometimesradically-traditionalpracticesand,toalesserextent,beliefs.Syncreticideasandceremoniesarequitecommonandcargo-cultconceptsexist.ReligiousPractitioners.Seersaretheonlyoneswhocancommunicatedirectlywiththeextrahumansphereanditsagents.Theymayalsoactassorcerers,inflictingharm,dis-ease,anddeathonothers.Malecultleaders,whoweresome-timesalsobig-men,wereresponsibleinthepastforreligiousceremonies.Thesmallgroup of specialistsinreligiousmattersincludedhealers.Ceremonies.Untilrecently,thefirstandmostimportantinitiation of boysbetweenabout4and15years of agewasamajoreventthatinvolvedparticipantsfromothervalleys.Itwasheldatintervals of about10years,dependingonhowmanyboyswereavailableforthiscostlyceremony.Coiniti-ateskeptalifelongbond.Secondandthirdstagesinvolved,respectively,thebestowal of thecanewaistbandandpenisgourd,andthepresentation of themum,abackdecorationthathungdownfromthehead.Largeandcostlyceremonialdancefeastsforvisitorsstrengthenedtieswithtradeandmarriagepartnersfromothervalleys.Warfareandallianceformationinvolvedceremonies,andthekilling of anyenemywascelebratedtriumphantly.Morerarely,greatceremonies,bringingtogetherinhabitantsfromdistant,sometimesinim-icalvalleys,wereheldtoensurethefertility of thesoil.Arts.TheEipomakeveryfewcarvedorpaintedobjects.SomeMekgroupshavesacredboardsandlargesacredshieldsthatwerenotusedinwar.Drumsareknownonlyinsomear-eas,buttheJew'sharpisfoundeverywhere.Thetexts of pro-fanesongsandsacredchantsconvincinglyusepowerfulmet-aphorsandarehighlysophisticatedexamples of artisticexpression.Medicine.Comparedtootherareas of NewGuinea,sur-prisinglyfewplantmedicinesareused.Leaves of thestingingnettleareappliedascounterirritants.Othertraditional(psy-chosomatic)treatments,carriedoutbyhealerswhowereusu-allymales,involvedsacredpig'sfatandchantstoinvokethehelp of extrahumanpowers.Healersusuallywerenotpaidfortheirservices.Inrecentyearsmodemmedicineshavebeenadministeredatsomemissionstations.DeathandAfterlife.Thedeath of ... 54EasterIsland.sweetpotatoesbeingthemostimportant.Taro,yams,sugar-cane,bananas,gourds,turmeric,andarrowrootwerealsogrownwhileberriesandseabirdeggsweregathered.Fishpro-videdsomeprotein,althoughfishingwasneveramajorsub-sistenceactivity.EasterIslanderscontinuetofarmsmallplotstoday,althoughmaizeisnowthemajorcropandChileancui-sinehasreplacedthenativediet.Sincetheintroduction of sheepranching,sheepandcattleontheislandhavebeentheprimarysources of meat.Mostmaterialgoodsarenowob-tainedfromthestoreontheislandandfromtheChileangov-ernment.Inadditiontofarmingandfishing,EasterIslandersnowworkforthegovernment,inafewsmallbusinesses,andinthetouristindustry.IndustrialArts.EasterIslanderswerehighlyskilledstone-cuttersandstone-carvers,masons,woodcutters,andcanoemakers.Today,somecarvewoodimagesforthetouristtrade.Thestone-carvingtraditionhadalreadybeenabandonedatthetime of contact,thoughthelargestonestatuessurvivedanddrewtheattention of visitorstotheisland.EasterIsland-ersalsomadevariousutensils,implements,andtoolsfromstoneandwood,baskets,nets,mats,cordage,tapa(aclothmadefrombark),andbodyornaments.Trade.Because of theirisolation,EasterIslandersevi-dendydidnottradewithothergroupsinPolynesia.TherehasbeenconjecturethatsomecultureelementsdevelopedthroughcontactwithSouthAmerica,mostnotablythefacialimagesonthestonemonuments.Theseideasremainunproven.Division of Labor.Menwereresponsibleforplantingthegardens,fishing,andbuildingthestonestructures.Womenharvestedcropsandhandledmostdomesticchores.Therewasalsoaweil-definedoccupationalhierarchy,withexpertreciters of genealogiesandfolklore,stone-carvers,wood-carvers,andfishermenpaidfortheirserviceswithproduce.Stone-carverswereaprivilegedgroupwiththeroleandstatuspassedfromfathertoson.LandTenure.Intraditionaltimes,landwasownedbylineageswithdwellingandfarmplotsallotedtofamilies.Since1888Chilehasmaintainedownership of all of EasterIslandandhasrestrictedtheEasterIslanderstolandinandaroundHangoroa.Newlywedsaregivenafewacres of landfortheirusebytheChileangovernment.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Thepopulation of EasterIs-landwasdividedintotensubtribesorclans(mata),each of whichevidentlyoccupiedadistinctterritoryinprecontacttimes.Byhistorictimes,subtribemembersweremorewidelydispersedasaresult of exogamousmarriage,adoption,andcaptureduringwar.Thetenclansformedtwolargerdivisions,withonecontrollingthewesternhalfandtheothertheeast-ernhalf of theisland.KinshipTerminology.Traditionalkintermusagefol-lowedtheHawaiiansystem,whichhasbeenmodifiedovertimetoreflectchangesinfamilyorganization.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Intraditionaltimes,mostmarriagesweremo-nogamous,thoughsomewealthymenhadmorethanonewife.Marriagesweregenerallyarranged,withinfantbetrothalnotuncommon.Today,marriageisbyfreechoice,althoughthefathers of boththegroomandbrideareinvolvedinap-provingandmakingarrangementsforthemarriage.Mar-riagesaremarkedbythreeceremonies-acivilceremony,churchceremony,andalargefeasthostedbythegroom'sfather-reflectingthesurvival of atraditionalpractice.Uponmarriage,thecouplegenerallylivewithonefamilyortheotheruntilmaterialscanbeobtainedtobuildtheirownhome.Inthepast,manymarriagesendedindivorce,whichcouldbeinitiatedbyeitherpartyforvirtuallyanyreason.TheRomanCatholicchurchhasmadedivorcemoredifficultandlessfrequent.DomesticUnit.Inthepast,thebasicfamilyandresiden-tialunitwasthelaterallyextendedfamilycomposed of broth-ers,theirwives,andtheirchildren.Today,thenudearfamilyisthenorm,althoughotherrelativessuchasgrandparentsandbrothersmightalsobepresent.Inthepastandtoday,thefatherwastheauthorityfigure,althoughtodaythewife'sfa-therhasmorepowerthanthehusband'sfatherandason-in-lawwilloftenseekhisfather-in-law'sapprovalforeducationalandcareerdecisions.UnderChileaninfluence,therole of godparent(compadre)hasdeveloped,andgodparentsoftenplayaroleinchildrearing.Inheritance.Inthepastandtoday,bothmenandwomencouldinheritandbothmenandwomencouldleaveproperty.Socialization.Pubertyintraditionaltimeswasmarkedforboysandgirlsbysecludingthemonanislandforsomemonthsandthenholdinglargeseparatefeastsattheend of theseclusionperiod.Theseritesdisappearedlongago,andpubertyisnolongermarkedbyritual.TheChileangovern-mentprovidesaschoolforelementaryeducationandsomeEasterIslandersattendhighschoolinChile.SocialandPoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Inadditiontosocialdistinctionsbasedonkinship,EasterIslandtraditionallyhadfourdistinctsocialclasses:noblemen(anki);priests(ivi-atua);warriors(matatoa);andservantsandfarmers(kio).Therulerwasthemainhighchief(ariki-mau)whotracedhisstatustodescentfromHotu-matua,thefounder of theisland.Inreality,arikiwereinvestedwithconsiderablemanaandweresubjecttonu-meroustaboos,althoughtheyhadlittleactualpower.Littleisknownabouttheactivities of priests,astherolehaddisap-pearedbythetimemissionariesarrived.Kiowerewarcaptiveswhoworkedforothersorpaidtributeintheform of percent-age of theircrops.PoliticalOrganizato.Asnotedabove,thenominalrul-erscamefromthearikiclass,withsuccessiontotheposition of highchiefgoingtotheoldestsonatthetime of hismar-riage.However,sincethismarriagewasoftendelayedmanyyearsbeyondthat of mostEasterIslanders,chiefsoftenheldtheirpositionforsomeyears.Atthetime of sustainedcon-tact,warriorsweretheactualpoliticalleaders,reflectingalonghistory of fightingamongthesubtribesandthealmostcontinuousfightingthatfollowedthekidnapping of menin18 62. Today,theEasterIslandersaregovernedbyChile,withaChileangovernor,civilservice,andpoliceforceprovidingservices.EasterIslanderrepresentationisthroughthemayor of Hangoroa.56Eipodenareasandcoversthemountainsaboveabout 2, 400me-tersuptothetreelineat3,500meters.Annualrainfallin197 5-1 976was590centimeters,withrainmostlyfallingdailyintheafternoonsandevenings.Temperaturesrangefromabout1 1-1 3°to 21 -2 5 °C.Littleseasonalchangeistobeobserved,butthetime of flowering of aparticulartree(Eodiasp.)istakenbytheEipoasamarker of certainfeastsandotheractivities.In1976twosevereearthquakesde-stroyedlargeareas of gardenlandandsomevillages;itislikelythatsimilarcatastropheshaveoccurredinthepast.Demography.TheEiponumbereddoseto800peoplein1980;indicationsarethatthepopulationisgrowing.linguisticAffiliation.Eipo, of whichtherearethreedia-lects,isamember of theMekFamily of Non-Austronesianlanguages,clearlyseparatefromtheOklanguagestotheeast,theYaliandDanilanguagestothewest,andlanguagesspo-kentothenorthandsouth.Localpeopletraditionallyunder-stand-and,toalesserextent,speak-oneortwodialectsorlanguagesotherthantheirown.Childrenusuallylearntheirspeechfromtheirmothers(who,duetorules of exogamy,oftencomefromdifferentvalleys)andoftendonotadoptthedialectspokenbythemajorityinaparticularvillage.BahasaIndonesia,unknownbeforethe1970s,isslowlygaininggroundasalinguafranca.HistoryandCulturalRelationsNoarchaeologicaldataareavailablefortheMekregion,andethnohistoricsurveysaremissingaswell.Itisprobable,how-ever,thatparts of theMekareahavebeeninhabitedformanythousands of years.Linguisticandhistoricalresearchontheintroductionanddiffusion of tobaccoshowsthattheMek(andtheirOkneighborstotheeast)mayhavebeencentralinthisprocess,andcomparativestudiesonreligiousbeliefsprovethatimportantconcepts(e .g. ,that of amythicalances-tralcreator)havetraveledfromeasttowest.Whileitisun-knownasyetatwhattimethesweetpotato(lpomoeabatatas)wasintroduced,onecanconcludefromthesignificance of taro(Colocasiaesculenta)inallceremonialreligiouscontextsthatthislatterfoodplantwas of vitalimportanceinpre-Ipomoeantimes.ThefirstknowncontactbyoutsiderswithMekpeopleswasmadebyateam of Dutchsurveyorsearlyinthiscentury;theymetagroup of peoplenearMountGoliathinthesouth of theareaandreportedthefirstrecordedwords of aMeklanguage.Someothergroupswerecontactedin1959inthecourse of aFrenchexpeditionacrossWestNewGuinea.Itsleader,PierreGaisseau,laterreturnedwithafilmteamandIndonesianmilitarypersonnelin1969,parachutingintothesouthernEipoValleywheretheyconductedasmallbutsoundsurveyontheareaandthepeople.Members of aninterdisciplinaryGermanresearchteamconductedresearchintheEipoValleyandsomeadjacentareasbetween1974and1980.SettlementsThevillages of theEipoandtheirneighborsintheMekareahave30 -2 5 0inhabitantsandareusuallybuiltonspotsthatfacilitatedefense.Oneormorecircularmen'shouses(whichoftenhavesacredfunctions)occupyconspicuousplaces,ei-therinthecenterorattheend of thevillage.Themuchsmallerandlesswell-builtfamilyhouses,also of circularshapebutsometimeswithrectangularroofs,arethelocationsforfamily-centeredactivities.Womenstayinseclusionhouses,usuallysituatedattheperiphery of thevillage,duringmenstruation,childbirth,andpuerperium,andsometimesduringseriousillnessesandforsanctuary.Allmen'shousesandmostfamilyhouseshaveelevatedfloorsandacentralfireplace.Protectionagainstthecold of thenightisnotveryadequate.Duetomissioninfluence,whichchieflyemploysDanievangelistsandteachers,Danihousestylesarebecom-ingfashionable.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.TheEipoandtheMekingeneralareskillfulhorticulturalistsandmaketheirgardensinvariousplaces:sometimesonsteepself-drainingmountainslopes,butalsoinflat,wetareaswhereditchingandbuildingmoundsareparticularlyimportantforthemainstaplecrop,sweetpotatoes.Mulchingiswidespread.Fallowperiodsarefifteenyearsormore;sufficientregeneration of thesoilisjudgedbythesize of atree(Trematomentosa)thatsoonstartstogrowinoldgardens.Numerousvarieties of taro,some of whichreachconsiderablesizeandweight,arealsocultivated.Theyarereservedforceremonies,especiallyfeastsforguests.Othercultigensincludeleafygreens(whichcon.tributemost of thevegetableprotein,especiallyformen),ba-nanas,sugarcane,ediblepitpit,nativeasparagus(Setariapalmifolia),variouspandanusspecies,andotherwildfoods.Beans,cheyote(Secchiumedule),cucumbers,maize,cassava,andpeanutshavebeenintroducedandsuccessfullyculti-vated.Thefewdomesticatedpigsdonotcontributemuchtothediet,onlyaboutonegramperdayperson;theyarecare-fullyraisedandusuallyusedonlyinceremonialcontexts.Smallmarsupialsaresnaredorhunted,oftenwiththehelp of dogs,buthuntingisdonemoretosatisfyemotionalneedsthantoprovidemeat.Womenandgirlsobtainvaluableani-malproteinintheform of frogs,tadpoles,lizards,snakes,spi-ders,andotherinsectsaswellastheeggsandlarvae of theseanimals.Traditionandreligioustaboosreservethesefoodsaswellasmost of thebirdspeciesforinfants,girls,andwomen.Inthepastdecade,theEipohavebecomedependentonmis-sionstationsassources of modemtools,clothing,tinnedfood,andothergoods,whicharepurchasedwithmoneyre-ceivedfromsellingservicesorproductstothemission.IndustrialArts.Thematerialcultureispoor,evencom-paredtootherhighlandsgroups,andwhenresearchwasbegunin1974,theEipoandmany of theirneighborswerestillusingstone,bone,andwoodentools.Theirworldlybe-longingsincludestringbags,bows,arrows,stoneadzes,stoneknivesandscrapers,woodendiggingsticks,boars'tusksandmarsupialteethusedascarvingtools,bonedaggersandawls,lianasforstartingfiresbyfriction,bambooorcalabashcon-tainersforwater,penisgourdsforthemen,andgrassskirtsforgirlsandwomen.TheMekcookinhotashes,bamboocon-tainersovertheopenfire,orinearthovensforlargergroups of people,especiallyguests.Trade.TheEipoandotherMekgroupsmayseemself-sufficientnow,buttraditionallytheyreliedonvariousgoodsfromtheoutside.Unpolishedstoneadzebladeswerepro-ducedbyspecialistsintheHeimeValleyandexchangedmainlyforstringbagsandgardenproducts.Otheritemsthat58Eipovillagecommunitiesaspersonswhotakeinitiative,pursueplans,andrespectrulesandtraditions,thoughtheyalsousethemtotheiradvantage.Inthisprotomeritocracy,leadershipisdependentontheactualpower of theleader.Personswhoshowsigns of losingtheircapacitieslosetheirpositions,too.Inheritance of big-manstatusfromfathertosonisnotinsti-tutionalized,butitsometimesoccursdefacto.SocialControl.Big-menexerciseacertainamount of so-cialcontrol,butmoreimportantistheprocess of enforcingsocialnormsthroughpublicopinion.Thisprocess,intum,iseffectedthroughgossip,discussion of disputedissues,andtheuse of extrahumanpowersinblackmagicallegedlyper-formedbyfemaleormalewitches.Theinfliction of illnessthusfunctionsaspunishmentforsocialwrongdoing.Conflict.DespitethefactthattheEipoareusuallyfriendlyandcontrolled,thepotentialforaggressiveactsisquitehighanddoesnotneedmuchtriggering.Untilrecently,inbothin-traalliancefightsandinteralliancewarfare,approximately 3-4 personsper1,000inhabitantsdied of violenceperyear.Verbalquarrelsandphysicalattackswithsticks,stoneadzes,andarrowswastheusualsequence of escalationleadingtofightsinthevillage.Neighborsinadjacentvalleyssometimeswerehereditaryenemieswhofoughtwarsthatwerelessritua-lized(andthereforelesscontrolled)thantheintraalliancefights;inthepasttheseconflictsoccasionallyledtocannibal-ism.Formalpeaceceremoniesendedthesewarsforperiods of monthsoryears.Warfareagainstideologicallydefinedanddehumanized"others"increasedone'sownsense of identityandstrengthenedbondswithinthegroup.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBelief.Thevisible world isconsideredtobein-habitedbynumerous,usuallymonstrous,beings:souls of thedeceased,zoomorphicspirits of theforestsandrivers,andpowerfulshapers of natureandbringers of culturewho,sincemythicaltimes,haveinfluencedthelife of people.Yaleenye(anamethatmeans'theonecomingfromtheeast")isthemostprominentsuchculturehero.Mythicalpowers,symbolizedbyholyrelics,weretraditionallyhousedandhonoredinsacredmen'shouses.Variousceremoniesthatpervadedeverydaylifewereperformedtoensurethewell-being of humans,domesticanimals,andfoodplants.FundamentalistChristianityhasreplaced-sometimesradically-traditionalpracticesand,toalesserextent,beliefs.Syncreticideasandceremoniesarequitecommonandcargo-cultconceptsexist.ReligiousPractitioners.Seersaretheonlyoneswhocancommunicatedirectlywiththeextrahumansphereanditsagents.Theymayalsoactassorcerers,inflictingharm,dis-ease,anddeathonothers.Malecultleaders,whoweresome-timesalsobig-men,wereresponsibleinthepastforreligiousceremonies.Thesmallgroup of specialistsinreligiousmattersincludedhealers.Ceremonies.Untilrecently,thefirstandmostimportantinitiation of boysbetweenabout4and15years of agewasamajoreventthatinvolvedparticipantsfromothervalleys.Itwasheldatintervals of about10years,dependingonhowmanyboyswereavailableforthiscostlyceremony.Coiniti-ateskeptalifelongbond.Secondandthirdstagesinvolved,respectively,thebestowal of thecanewaistbandandpenisgourd,andthepresentation of themum,abackdecorationthathungdownfromthehead.Largeandcostlyceremonialdancefeastsforvisitorsstrengthenedtieswithtradeandmarriagepartnersfromothervalleys.Warfareandallianceformationinvolvedceremonies,andthekilling of anyenemywascelebratedtriumphantly.Morerarely,greatceremonies,bringingtogetherinhabitantsfromdistant,sometimesinim-icalvalleys,wereheldtoensurethefertility of thesoil.Arts.TheEipomakeveryfewcarvedorpaintedobjects.SomeMekgroupshavesacredboardsandlargesacredshieldsthatwerenotusedinwar.Drumsareknownonlyinsomear-eas,buttheJew'sharpisfoundeverywhere.Thetexts of pro-fanesongsandsacredchantsconvincinglyusepowerfulmet-aphorsandarehighlysophisticatedexamples of artisticexpression.Medicine.Comparedtootherareas of NewGuinea,sur-prisinglyfewplantmedicinesareused.Leaves of thestingingnettleareappliedascounterirritants.Othertraditional(psy-chosomatic)treatments,carriedoutbyhealerswhowereusu-allymales,involvedsacredpig'sfatandchantstoinvokethehelp of extrahumanpowers.Healersusuallywerenotpaidfortheirservices.Inrecentyearsmodemmedicineshavebeenadministeredatsomemissionstations.DeathandAfterlife.Thedeath of ... 54EasterIsland.sweetpotatoesbeingthemostimportant.Taro,yams,sugar-cane,bananas,gourds,turmeric,andarrowrootwerealsogrownwhileberriesandseabirdeggsweregathered.Fishpro-videdsomeprotein,althoughfishingwasneveramajorsub-sistenceactivity.EasterIslanderscontinuetofarmsmallplotstoday,althoughmaizeisnowthemajorcropandChileancui-sinehasreplacedthenativediet.Sincetheintroduction of sheepranching,sheepandcattleontheislandhavebeentheprimarysources of meat.Mostmaterialgoodsarenowob-tainedfromthestoreontheislandandfromtheChileangov-ernment.Inadditiontofarmingandfishing,EasterIslandersnowworkforthegovernment,inafewsmallbusinesses,andinthetouristindustry.IndustrialArts.EasterIslanderswerehighlyskilledstone-cuttersandstone-carvers,masons,woodcutters,andcanoemakers.Today,somecarvewoodimagesforthetouristtrade.Thestone-carvingtraditionhadalreadybeenabandonedatthetime of contact,thoughthelargestonestatuessurvivedanddrewtheattention of visitorstotheisland.EasterIsland-ersalsomadevariousutensils,implements,andtoolsfromstoneandwood,baskets,nets,mats,cordage,tapa(aclothmadefrombark),andbodyornaments.Trade.Because of theirisolation,EasterIslandersevi-dendydidnottradewithothergroupsinPolynesia.TherehasbeenconjecturethatsomecultureelementsdevelopedthroughcontactwithSouthAmerica,mostnotablythefacialimagesonthestonemonuments.Theseideasremainunproven.Division of Labor.Menwereresponsibleforplantingthegardens,fishing,andbuildingthestonestructures.Womenharvestedcropsandhandledmostdomesticchores.Therewasalsoaweil-definedoccupationalhierarchy,withexpertreciters of genealogiesandfolklore,stone-carvers,wood-carvers,andfishermenpaidfortheirserviceswithproduce.Stone-carverswereaprivilegedgroupwiththeroleandstatuspassedfromfathertoson.LandTenure.Intraditionaltimes,landwasownedbylineageswithdwellingandfarmplotsallotedtofamilies.Since1888Chilehasmaintainedownership of all of EasterIslandandhasrestrictedtheEasterIslanderstolandinandaroundHangoroa.Newlywedsaregivenafewacres of landfortheirusebytheChileangovernment.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Thepopulation of EasterIs-landwasdividedintotensubtribesorclans(mata),each of whichevidentlyoccupiedadistinctterritoryinprecontacttimes.Byhistorictimes,subtribemembersweremorewidelydispersedasaresult of exogamousmarriage,adoption,andcaptureduringwar.Thetenclansformedtwolargerdivisions,withonecontrollingthewesternhalfandtheothertheeast-ernhalf of theisland.KinshipTerminology.Traditionalkintermusagefol-lowedtheHawaiiansystem,whichhasbeenmodifiedovertimetoreflectchangesinfamilyorganization.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Intraditionaltimes,mostmarriagesweremo-nogamous,thoughsomewealthymenhadmorethanonewife.Marriagesweregenerallyarranged,withinfantbetrothalnotuncommon.Today,marriageisbyfreechoice,althoughthefathers of boththegroomandbrideareinvolvedinap-provingandmakingarrangementsforthemarriage.Mar-riagesaremarkedbythreeceremonies-acivilceremony,churchceremony,andalargefeasthostedbythegroom'sfather-reflectingthesurvival of atraditionalpractice.Uponmarriage,thecouplegenerallylivewithonefamilyortheotheruntilmaterialscanbeobtainedtobuildtheirownhome.Inthepast,manymarriagesendedindivorce,whichcouldbeinitiatedbyeitherpartyforvirtuallyanyreason.TheRomanCatholicchurchhasmadedivorcemoredifficultandlessfrequent.DomesticUnit.Inthepast,thebasicfamilyandresiden-tialunitwasthelaterallyextendedfamilycomposed of broth-ers,theirwives,andtheirchildren.Today,thenudearfamilyisthenorm,althoughotherrelativessuchasgrandparentsandbrothersmightalsobepresent.Inthepastandtoday,thefatherwastheauthorityfigure,althoughtodaythewife'sfa-therhasmorepowerthanthehusband'sfatherandason-in-lawwilloftenseekhisfather-in-law'sapprovalforeducationalandcareerdecisions.UnderChileaninfluence,therole of godparent(compadre)hasdeveloped,andgodparentsoftenplayaroleinchildrearing.Inheritance.Inthepastandtoday,bothmenandwomencouldinheritandbothmenandwomencouldleaveproperty.Socialization.Pubertyintraditionaltimeswasmarkedforboysandgirlsbysecludingthemonanislandforsomemonthsandthenholdinglargeseparatefeastsattheend of theseclusionperiod.Theseritesdisappearedlongago,andpubertyisnolongermarkedbyritual.TheChileangovern-mentprovidesaschoolforelementaryeducationandsomeEasterIslandersattendhighschoolinChile.SocialandPoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Inadditiontosocialdistinctionsbasedonkinship,EasterIslandtraditionallyhadfourdistinctsocialclasses:noblemen(anki);priests(ivi-atua);warriors(matatoa);andservantsandfarmers(kio).Therulerwasthemainhighchief(ariki-mau)whotracedhisstatustodescentfromHotu-matua,thefounder of theisland.Inreality,arikiwereinvestedwithconsiderablemanaandweresubjecttonu-meroustaboos,althoughtheyhadlittleactualpower.Littleisknownabouttheactivities of priests,astherolehaddisap-pearedbythetimemissionariesarrived.Kiowerewarcaptiveswhoworkedforothersorpaidtributeintheform of percent-age of theircrops.PoliticalOrganizato.Asnotedabove,thenominalrul-erscamefromthearikiclass,withsuccessiontotheposition of highchiefgoingtotheoldestsonatthetime of hismar-riage.However,sincethismarriagewasoftendelayedmanyyearsbeyondthat of mostEasterIslanders,chiefsoftenheldtheirpositionforsomeyears.Atthetime of sustainedcon-tact,warriorsweretheactualpoliticalleaders,reflectingalonghistory of fightingamongthesubtribesandthealmostcontinuousfightingthatfollowedthekidnapping of menin18 62. Today,theEasterIslandersaregovernedbyChile,withaChileangovernor,civilservice,andpoliceforceprovidingservices.EasterIslanderrepresentationisthroughthemayor of Hangoroa.56Eipodenareasandcoversthemountainsaboveabout 2, 400me-tersuptothetreelineat3,500meters.Annualrainfallin197 5-1 976was590centimeters,withrainmostlyfallingdailyintheafternoonsandevenings.Temperaturesrangefromabout1 1-1 3°to 21 -2 5 °C.Littleseasonalchangeistobeobserved,butthetime of flowering of aparticulartree(Eodiasp.)istakenbytheEipoasamarker of certainfeastsandotheractivities.In1976twosevereearthquakesde-stroyedlargeareas of gardenlandandsomevillages;itislikelythatsimilarcatastropheshaveoccurredinthepast.Demography.TheEiponumbereddoseto800peoplein1980;indicationsarethatthepopulationisgrowing.linguisticAffiliation.Eipo, of whichtherearethreedia-lects,isamember of theMekFamily of Non-Austronesianlanguages,clearlyseparatefromtheOklanguagestotheeast,theYaliandDanilanguagestothewest,andlanguagesspo-kentothenorthandsouth.Localpeopletraditionallyunder-stand-and,toalesserextent,speak-oneortwodialectsorlanguagesotherthantheirown.Childrenusuallylearntheirspeechfromtheirmothers(who,duetorules of exogamy,oftencomefromdifferentvalleys)andoftendonotadoptthedialectspokenbythemajorityinaparticularvillage.BahasaIndonesia,unknownbeforethe1970s,isslowlygaininggroundasalinguafranca.HistoryandCulturalRelationsNoarchaeologicaldataareavailablefortheMekregion,andethnohistoricsurveysaremissingaswell.Itisprobable,how-ever,thatparts of theMekareahavebeeninhabitedformanythousands of years.Linguisticandhistoricalresearchontheintroductionanddiffusion of tobaccoshowsthattheMek(andtheirOkneighborstotheeast)mayhavebeencentralinthisprocess,andcomparativestudiesonreligiousbeliefsprovethatimportantconcepts(e .g. ,that of amythicalances-tralcreator)havetraveledfromeasttowest.Whileitisun-knownasyetatwhattimethesweetpotato(lpomoeabatatas)wasintroduced,onecanconcludefromthesignificance of taro(Colocasiaesculenta)inallceremonialreligiouscontextsthatthislatterfoodplantwas of vitalimportanceinpre-Ipomoeantimes.ThefirstknowncontactbyoutsiderswithMekpeopleswasmadebyateam of Dutchsurveyorsearlyinthiscentury;theymetagroup of peoplenearMountGoliathinthesouth of theareaandreportedthefirstrecordedwords of aMeklanguage.Someothergroupswerecontactedin1959inthecourse of aFrenchexpeditionacrossWestNewGuinea.Itsleader,PierreGaisseau,laterreturnedwithafilmteamandIndonesianmilitarypersonnelin1969,parachutingintothesouthernEipoValleywheretheyconductedasmallbutsoundsurveyontheareaandthepeople.Members of aninterdisciplinaryGermanresearchteamconductedresearchintheEipoValleyandsomeadjacentareasbetween1974and1980.SettlementsThevillages of theEipoandtheirneighborsintheMekareahave30 -2 5 0inhabitantsandareusuallybuiltonspotsthatfacilitatedefense.Oneormorecircularmen'shouses(whichoftenhavesacredfunctions)occupyconspicuousplaces,ei-therinthecenterorattheend of thevillage.Themuchsmallerandlesswell-builtfamilyhouses,also of circularshapebutsometimeswithrectangularroofs,arethelocationsforfamily-centeredactivities.Womenstayinseclusionhouses,usuallysituatedattheperiphery of thevillage,duringmenstruation,childbirth,andpuerperium,andsometimesduringseriousillnessesandforsanctuary.Allmen'shousesandmostfamilyhouseshaveelevatedfloorsandacentralfireplace.Protectionagainstthecold of thenightisnotveryadequate.Duetomissioninfluence,whichchieflyemploysDanievangelistsandteachers,Danihousestylesarebecom-ingfashionable.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.TheEipoandtheMekingeneralareskillfulhorticulturalistsandmaketheirgardensinvariousplaces:sometimesonsteepself-drainingmountainslopes,butalsoinflat,wetareaswhereditchingandbuildingmoundsareparticularlyimportantforthemainstaplecrop,sweetpotatoes.Mulchingiswidespread.Fallowperiodsarefifteenyearsormore;sufficientregeneration of thesoilisjudgedbythesize of atree(Trematomentosa)thatsoonstartstogrowinoldgardens.Numerousvarieties of taro,some of whichreachconsiderablesizeandweight,arealsocultivated.Theyarereservedforceremonies,especiallyfeastsforguests.Othercultigensincludeleafygreens(whichcon.tributemost of thevegetableprotein,especiallyformen),ba-nanas,sugarcane,ediblepitpit,nativeasparagus(Setariapalmifolia),variouspandanusspecies,andotherwildfoods.Beans,cheyote(Secchiumedule),cucumbers,maize,cassava,andpeanutshavebeenintroducedandsuccessfullyculti-vated.Thefewdomesticatedpigsdonotcontributemuchtothediet,onlyaboutonegramperdayperson;theyarecare-fullyraisedandusuallyusedonlyinceremonialcontexts.Smallmarsupialsaresnaredorhunted,oftenwiththehelp of dogs,buthuntingisdonemoretosatisfyemotionalneedsthantoprovidemeat.Womenandgirlsobtainvaluableani-malproteinintheform of frogs,tadpoles,lizards,snakes,spi-ders,andotherinsectsaswellastheeggsandlarvae of theseanimals.Traditionandreligioustaboosreservethesefoodsaswellasmost of thebirdspeciesforinfants,girls,andwomen.Inthepastdecade,theEipohavebecomedependentonmis-sionstationsassources of modemtools,clothing,tinnedfood,andothergoods,whicharepurchasedwithmoneyre-ceivedfromsellingservicesorproductstothemission.IndustrialArts.Thematerialcultureispoor,evencom-paredtootherhighlandsgroups,andwhenresearchwasbegunin1974,theEipoandmany of theirneighborswerestillusingstone,bone,andwoodentools.Theirworldlybe-longingsincludestringbags,bows,arrows,stoneadzes,stoneknivesandscrapers,woodendiggingsticks,boars'tusksandmarsupialteethusedascarvingtools,bonedaggersandawls,lianasforstartingfiresbyfriction,bambooorcalabashcon-tainersforwater,penisgourdsforthemen,andgrassskirtsforgirlsandwomen.TheMekcookinhotashes,bamboocon-tainersovertheopenfire,orinearthovensforlargergroups of people,especiallyguests.Trade.TheEipoandotherMekgroupsmayseemself-sufficientnow,buttraditionallytheyreliedonvariousgoodsfromtheoutside.Unpolishedstoneadzebladeswerepro-ducedbyspecialistsintheHeimeValleyandexchangedmainlyforstringbagsandgardenproducts.Otheritemsthat58Eipovillagecommunitiesaspersonswhotakeinitiative,pursueplans,andrespectrulesandtraditions,thoughtheyalsousethemtotheiradvantage.Inthisprotomeritocracy,leadershipisdependentontheactualpower of theleader.Personswhoshowsigns of losingtheircapacitieslosetheirpositions,too.Inheritance of big-manstatusfromfathertosonisnotinsti-tutionalized,butitsometimesoccursdefacto.SocialControl.Big-menexerciseacertainamount of so-cialcontrol,butmoreimportantistheprocess of enforcingsocialnormsthroughpublicopinion.Thisprocess,intum,iseffectedthroughgossip,discussion of disputedissues,andtheuse of extrahumanpowersinblackmagicallegedlyper-formedbyfemaleormalewitches.Theinfliction of illnessthusfunctionsaspunishmentforsocialwrongdoing.Conflict.DespitethefactthattheEipoareusuallyfriendlyandcontrolled,thepotentialforaggressiveactsisquitehighanddoesnotneedmuchtriggering.Untilrecently,inbothin-traalliancefightsandinteralliancewarfare,approximately 3-4 personsper1,000inhabitantsdied of violenceperyear.Verbalquarrelsandphysicalattackswithsticks,stoneadzes,andarrowswastheusualsequence of escalationleadingtofightsinthevillage.Neighborsinadjacentvalleyssometimeswerehereditaryenemieswhofoughtwarsthatwerelessritua-lized(andthereforelesscontrolled)thantheintraalliancefights;inthepasttheseconflictsoccasionallyledtocannibal-ism.Formalpeaceceremoniesendedthesewarsforperiods of monthsoryears.Warfareagainstideologicallydefinedanddehumanized"others"increasedone'sownsense of identityandstrengthenedbondswithinthegroup.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBelief.Thevisible world isconsideredtobein-habitedbynumerous,usuallymonstrous,beings:souls of thedeceased,zoomorphicspirits of theforestsandrivers,andpowerfulshapers of natureandbringers of culturewho,sincemythicaltimes,haveinfluencedthelife of people.Yaleenye(anamethatmeans'theonecomingfromtheeast")isthemostprominentsuchculturehero.Mythicalpowers,symbolizedbyholyrelics,weretraditionallyhousedandhonoredinsacredmen'shouses.Variousceremoniesthatpervadedeverydaylifewereperformedtoensurethewell-being of humans,domesticanimals,andfoodplants.FundamentalistChristianityhasreplaced-sometimesradically-traditionalpracticesand,toalesserextent,beliefs.Syncreticideasandceremoniesarequitecommonandcargo-cultconceptsexist.ReligiousPractitioners.Seersaretheonlyoneswhocancommunicatedirectlywiththeextrahumansphereanditsagents.Theymayalsoactassorcerers,inflictingharm,dis-ease,anddeathonothers.Malecultleaders,whoweresome-timesalsobig-men,wereresponsibleinthepastforreligiousceremonies.Thesmallgroup of specialistsinreligiousmattersincludedhealers.Ceremonies.Untilrecently,thefirstandmostimportantinitiation of boysbetweenabout4and15years of agewasamajoreventthatinvolvedparticipantsfromothervalleys.Itwasheldatintervals of about10years,dependingonhowmanyboyswereavailableforthiscostlyceremony.Coiniti-ateskeptalifelongbond.Secondandthirdstagesinvolved,respectively,thebestowal of thecanewaistbandandpenisgourd,andthepresentation of themum,abackdecorationthathungdownfromthehead.Largeandcostlyceremonialdancefeastsforvisitorsstrengthenedtieswithtradeandmarriagepartnersfromothervalleys.Warfareandallianceformationinvolvedceremonies,andthekilling of anyenemywascelebratedtriumphantly.Morerarely,greatceremonies,bringingtogetherinhabitantsfromdistant,sometimesinim-icalvalleys,wereheldtoensurethefertility of thesoil.Arts.TheEipomakeveryfewcarvedorpaintedobjects.SomeMekgroupshavesacredboardsandlargesacredshieldsthatwerenotusedinwar.Drumsareknownonlyinsomear-eas,buttheJew'sharpisfoundeverywhere.Thetexts of pro-fanesongsandsacredchantsconvincinglyusepowerfulmet-aphorsandarehighlysophisticatedexamples of artisticexpression.Medicine.Comparedtootherareas of NewGuinea,sur-prisinglyfewplantmedicinesareused.Leaves of thestingingnettleareappliedascounterirritants.Othertraditional(psy-chosomatic)treatments,carriedoutbyhealerswhowereusu-allymales,involvedsacredpig'sfatandchantstoinvokethehelp of extrahumanpowers.Healersusuallywerenotpaidfortheirservices.Inrecentyearsmodemmedicineshavebeenadministeredatsomemissionstations.DeathandAfterlife.Thedeathof...