... washed dishes before being promoted to chopping vegetables, preparing sauces, and cooking. Few chefs achieved independence or autonomy with the rise of the restaurant in the eighteenth century. ... houses of the eighteenth, nineteenth, and early twentieth centuries. The peak of success for grand cooking came at the turn of the twentieth century and is best refl ected in the Guide culinaire ... at the end of the nineteenth century and, helped by restaurant reviewers and food writers, early in the twentieth. In contrast with the elaborate preparations and expensive exotic ingredients...